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HIGH SCHOOL 
ADMINISTRATION 



BY 
HORACE A. HOLLISTER, A.M. 

HIGH SCHOOL VISITOR FOR THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1909 



L3 16^ -J 



Copyright, 1909, 
By D. C. heath & CO. 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two CcDies Received 

/I Ccpyngnt Entry 

COP^Y £3. f 






TO MY WIFE 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
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PREFACE 

The rapid development of the American high school has for 
some time pointed towards the need of a specialized treatment, 
in an organic way, of the general problems of its administra- 
tion. The numerous normal school, college, and university- 
courses offered on this subject point distinctly to a definite and 
growing interest in this field of discussion. If any further evi- 
dence were needed of the widespread interest in the high school 
as an institution, it might readily be found in the numerous 
organizations of the country whose discussions and efforts center 
wholly or quite specifically in the problems of secondary educa- 
tion. 

One's experience as an inspector of schools also naturally 
adds emphasis to this call. The large number of beginners 
each year in the field of high school administration, with the 
consequent frequent inquiries for the things helpful in organiz- 
ing the work, gives an insistence to the demand that can be 
neither mistaken nor ignored. 

The title of " High School Administration " is used because 
the purpose has been to discuss the problems of secondary edu- 
cation as they are found to exist in the only distinctively 
American institution which undertakes to deal with them in a 
concrete way. It is, perhaps, needless to add that the greater 
part of the materials here presented have been developed in the 
laboratory of experience in various phases of public school 
administration, chiefly of high schools. 

The general plan of presentation may be briefly stated as 
follows : The central feature is the discussion of the Program 
of Studies found in Chapter VII. It is here that the most im- 
portant materials to be used in the educative process are to be 
found. The subjects for study form the central feature of the 
activities of the school. Here is the line of contact where the 
personality of the teacher meets that of the pupil in the learn- 
ing process. To this the earlier chapters lead up or indicate 
the preparation of the means for carrying into effect the various 
courses of the program. The succeeding chapters deal with the 



vi PREFACE 

problems connected with the presentation of the program of 
studies, including some additional matters which the organiza- 
tion of the school for this purpose brings into the field of high 
school administration. 

The assumption is that this is not an elementary treatise on 
management, but a presentation of the larger problems of 
administration for use in advanced courses in college or for the 
guidance of those who, though amateurs in the field of adminis- 
trative work, may well be presumed to be familiar with the more 
elementary principles of school management. 

By a similar assumption as to the division of effort, the aim 
of the author has been to confine psychological considerations 
within such limits as would meet the necessities of the case in 
making the presentation of all such relations clear. 

If, at points, seemingly dogmatic statements are indulged in, 
the author must crave consideration on the ground that these 
usually come as a result of extended experience, and often in 
a field where such empiricism may be permitted to take the 
place of the present lack of sufficient data for a more scientific 
presentation. 

In the third chapter, the general course of work in the ele- 
mentary school as there defined has been put to the test by the 
author during four years of careful experiment in actual work 
under conditions unusually favorable. 

The grateful acknowledgments of the author are due to Presi- 
dent A. Ross Hill, of the University of Missouri, for very help- 
ful suggestions ; also to F. D. Haddock, formerly of Champaign, 
Illinois, now Assistant Commissioner of Education in Porto Rico ; 
to Principal C. M. McConn, of the University Academy, and to 
Dr. E. L. Norton, Instructor in Education at the University of 
Illinois, for reading the manuscript while in process of revision 
and for the very suggestive criticisms offered by them. To Pro- 
fessor W. C. Bagley, of the Department of Education, who 
assisted in reading the proof, especial thanks are due for many 
helpful criticisms. 

Further acknowledgments are due for the free use made of 
extracts from various reports and courses of study, especially 
in preparing the appendixes. 

Urbana, Illinois, 

February i6, 1909. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. A Backward Look . i 

i. Education of Greek and Roman Youth I 

ii. The Middle Ages ^ , . . 2 

iii. Beginnings of Modern Secondary Education .... 4 

iv. Later Development of Secondary Schools in Europe . . 5 

V. Early Secondary Schools in America 11 

vi. Evolution of the Public High School 15 

Chapter II. Legal Status of High Schools . . . .28 
i. Legal Enactments for Colonial Schools . . . . .28 

ii. Laws regulating New England High Schools .... 30 

iii. Middle Atlantic States .32 

iv. The North Central and Western Groups 34 

V. Township and County High Schools 34 

vi. States having Limited Enactments or not Mentioning High 

Schools 36 

vii. Importance of Recent Legislation 38 

viii. State High School Boards 38 

ix. Certification of High School Teachers ^ 39 

X. Provisions for Financial Support 40 

xi. Legislation concerning Text-books ..»••. 44 

xii. High School Fraternities "■ — 45 

xiii. An Ideal Scheme of Legal Enactments 46 

Chapter III. Place of the Secondary School in our System of 

Education 49 

i. Secondary Schools Compared and Defined .... 49 

ii. Work to be Accomplished in the Elementary School . . 52 

iii. Analysis of the Elementary Program • • • • • 53 

iv. The Forward Look 56 

V. Training of Teachers in High Schools 58 

Chapter IV. Grounds, Buildings, and Equipment . . .61 

i. Present Conditions in Regard to School Sanitation . . 61 

ii. The School Site 62 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

PAGE 

iii. The Building as a Whole 63 

\1 iv. Training of Supervisors in Architecture and Sanitation . . 66 

V. Facts to be Impressed 7 1 

vi. .^thetic Considerations 72 

vii. Furnishing and equipping a High School • • • • 73 

Chapter V. Text-books and Other Supplies for the Use of 

Pupils 77 

i. Growth of the Text-book Idea 77 

ii. "Who prepare our Texts? 78 

iii. Notebooks and Pens ^79 

iv. Regulation of the Cost of Text -books 79 

V. Uniformity 82 

vi. Selection and Adoption of Texts S$ 

vii. Corrupt Methods of Publishers ...... 85 

viii. Other Supplies of Pupils . 88 

Chapter VI. Employment of Teachers and Organization of 

the Instructional Work 89 

i. Authority to employ Teachers ...... 89 

ii. Plan of Organization 91 

\ iii. Individual Work 94 

iv. Ratio of Pupils to Teachers 94 

v. The Training of Teachers 97 

vi. Their Training in Service 100 

vii. Compensation and Tenure ....... 102 

viii. Pensions 107 

ix. Selection and Nomination of Teachers 108 

X. The Principal . 109 

xi. The Departmental Head iii 

xii. The Teacher 113 

Chapter VII. The Program of Studies 116 

i. Determining Conditions 116 

ii. Basis for Classification into Courses 116 

iii. Elements involved in the Program 120 

iv. Each Course Defined : History 122 

V. Science 126 

vi. Languages, including English and Foreign . . . .129 

vii. Mathematics 135 

viii. Music 137 

ix. Manual Arts 138 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

X. Agriculture and Domestic Science 141 

xi. Business Training 142 

xii. The Trade School 143 

xiii. Physical Training 144 

xiv. Community Interests as affecting the Program of Studies , 146 

XV. The Elective System . . 147 

xvi. The Question of Sex 150 

xvii. Suggested Types of Programs 150 

Chapter VIII. Adolescence and Coeducation . . . .156 

i. Early Conditions and Methods 156 

ii. Hall's " Adolescence " 157 

iii. Further Analysis of Adolescence 158 

iv. The Readjustment Needed 162 

v. Coeducation 165 

vi. The Englewood Experiment , 167 

vii. Natural Segregation 168 

Chapter IX. Discipline — Its Purpose and Spirit . . .171 

i. The Factors of Discipline 171 

ii. Three Forms of Discipline : Instruction 173 

iii. Function and Attitude of the Teacher 177 

iv. Corrective Discipline 179 

v. Discipline of the Life of the School >. . , . .181 

vi. The Results of Discipline 184 

Chapter X. The Life of the School 187 

i. Factors which determine It 187 

ii. Different Phases of School Life 190 

iii. Place and Importance of School Organizations . , . 193 
iv. American Schools behind in the Social Organization of the 

School 195 

V. The Oak Park Plan 197 

vi. Student Self-government ,198 

Chapter XI. Method as applied to High School Instruction. 202 

i. A Knowledge of Method necessary in Administration . . 202 

ii. Scant Treatment of High School Methods .... 203 

iii. Differences due to Adolescence 204 

iv. The Doctrine of Interest 206 

V. Correlation 207 

vi. The Scientific Method 209 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

vii. Apperception and Isolation 211 

viii. Welton's Analysis of Method . , . . , . .213 
ix. Method of Special Subjects : Welton's Classification . .213 

X. Method in imparting Ethical and .^sthetical Truth . . 215 

Chapter XII. Examinations, Promotions, and Graduation . 219 

i. The Problem of a Satisfactory Scheme of Promotions . . 219 

ii. Evils of Examinations .219 

iii. Common Fallacies . . . . . . . . ,221 

iv. Necessity for Periodical Records of Work .... 223 

V. Methods of Procedure 225 

vi. Preparation of Examination Questions 229 

vii. Times of Testing 230 

viii. Promotions 231 

ix. Graduation 234 

Chapter XIII. Relation of the High School to Colleges and 

Universities 237 

i. Historical Survey of Entrance Requirements .... 238 

ii. The Problem before the High Schools 240 

iii. What is to be the Attitude of the Colleges? .... 240 

iv. Present Practice of State Universities 242 

V. The Problem of Preparing Teachers . , , . . 245 

vi. Need of the Study of Values . . . . . . , 247 

vii. The Determination of Fitness for Admission to College : The 

New England Board 247 

viii. The Entrance Examination Board 247 

ix. The System of Accrediting by Inspection .... 248 

x. Purport of Argument Stated ....... 250 

Chapter XIV. The Business Side of High School Adminis- 
tration 253 

i. Necessity for System 253 

ii. Order of Arrangement of Classes 254 

iii. Length of Periods ......... 254 

iv. Difficulties in Case of Electives 255 

V, Question of the Single Session 255 

vi. Consultation Work and " Checking Up " 256 

vii. Business Correspondence 257 

viii. School Records 257 

ix. Methods of Keeping Pupils' Records 261 

x. School Reports 262 



CONTENTS xi 

PAGE 

Chapter XV. The Community Life in its Relationship to 

High School Administration . . . . . . 265 

i. Educational Ideals and Standards 265 

ii. Influence of Local Industries . . . . , , . 267 
iii. Feeling that Schools should minister to the Fundamental 

Industrial Needs . 268 

iv. Influence of Social Customs and Standards .... 269 

V. The Reading Habits of the Community ..... 272 

vi. Influence of the Wider Community Life 273 

vii. Counter Influences of the School ...... 274 

Chapter XVI. Moral and Religious Training in the High 

School 280 

i. The Need from the Standpoint of the State .... 280 

ii. The Two Methods Heretofore Used 282 

iii. Statement of the Situation 284 

iv. Nature and Treatment of our Problems 285 

V. Conclusions 287 

Chapter XVII. High School Extension and the Continuation 

School 290 

1. Special Educational Agencies Needed ..... 290 
ii. Making the School a Center for Social Service . . .291 

iii. Place of the High School in this Work 291 

iv. Influence of High School on Elementary Schools . . . 293 

V. The Evening High School 294 

vi. Tendency to a More General Use of the Continuation School . 295 

Chapter XVIII. The Outlook 298 

i. The Educational Situation in General ..... 298 

ii. The Situation in Germany 299 

iii. In France 300 

iv. In England 301 

v. Tendencies in the Growth of our High Schools . . . 302 

vi. The Present Outlook with Us 305 

vii. Motives behind these Educational Movements . , . 306 

viii. American Ideals ......... 308 

Appendixes (see List on page 312) 311 

Index 375 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

CHAPTER I 

A BACKWARD LOOK 

Strictly speaking, secondary education had its begin- 
ning in Europe after the time of the Roman Empire. It 
required a long time from the beginning of the formal 
instruction of youth before this period of education could 
be differentiated from other periods. Nevertheless, it is 
historically correct to say that the early types of secondary 
education are foreshadowed in the higher scholastic train- 
ing of the Greeks and Romans. 

I. Education of Greek and Roman Youth 

To the youths of Athens, at ages ranging from twelve 
to fourteen years, was offered the study of grammar, 
poetry, rhetoric, and music, along with a vigorous physical 
training. To these, after the fifth century, geometry, 
astronomy, and arithmetic were added. The work in 
grammar consisted chiefly of reading and writing of the 
grade now given in our elementary schools. Poetry 
and rhetoric were taught more as literature is now taught. 
The lyric and epic poems of Greece were committed and 
recited or sung. Much of the work classed under music 
consisted of the mastery of words and the rhetorical 
elements of the poetry to be recited. The mathematics 
and astronomy were at first of an elementary character, 



2 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and given chiefly for practical purposes. Later, the arith- 
metic became more abstract in the hands of the Greek 
philosophers. 

The physical training of the youthful Athenian was a 
very important matter, and much time was given to the 
games, contests, and gymnastic exercises of the palaestra. 
The pupil was always accompanied by an instructor, 
whether in the pursuit of knowledge or when at his games 
and sports. The attainment of perfect manhood was the 
ideal constantly held up to him. 

In Roman days, while conditions varied much from the 
time of the republic to the declining empire, the chief lines 
of instruction given were quite like those of the Greeks. 
The Roman curriculum included Greek as a foreign lan- 
guage, grammar, poetry, oratory, mathematics, with some 
history and philosophy. The physical training of the 
Roman youth was directed chiefly to the development 
of a good soldier. In fact, it may be said that the chief 
difference between Greek and Roman education lay in the 
ideals and purposes of the two races. 

II. The Middle Ages 

When we pass beyond the empire to the Middle Ages in 
Europe, we find much the same materials of instruction 
in the schools for boys. The new element that appears 
in the monastic schools of this period is the emphasis 
placed upon religious training. This gives an entirely 
different trend and purpose to the work of the teacher, 
although the same secular subjects are taught, with the 
addition of the Latin language. 

Later the growth of the free cities of Europe led to the 
establishment of an entirely new type of schools, secular 
in character. At first these were known as "reckoning 



A BACKWARD LOOK 3 

schools," organized primarily for the teaching of arithmetic 
such as was demanded by the growth of commerce, instead 
of the traditional and abstract form which had come down 
to the monastic schools from the philosophical treatment 
of the subject by the later Greeks. This same practical 
trend of the growing commercial life led also to the intro- 
duction into the city schools of the study of geography, 
history, the mother tongue, and even the rudiments of the 
natural sciences. 

Contact with the Mohammedans in Arabia still further 
widened the field and led to the introduction of algebra, 
trigonometry, and the beginnings of chemistry into the 
now rapidly developing group of secondary subjects. TJie 
rise of the universities in the twelfth century added a great 
stimulus to the growth of a new scientific spirit which had 
been foreshadowed, if not, in a measure, promulgated in 
the teachings of Aristotle. 

The notable result from these early periods of educa- 
tional history, so far as this discussion is concerned, may 
readily be summed up in the fact that they furnish us 
with a starting place, f In these early types we may see 
most of the essential elements, so far as subject-matter 
is concerned, which have constituted the curriculum of 
secondary education down to within very recent times. 
The tardiness which has always characterized the appear- 
ance of any important change in the subjects taught is 
indicative of the remarkable tenacity with which traditional 
forms persist, and speaks eloquently for the genuineness 
of these materials of education as corresponding to the 
deeper needs and interests of the human race. Even 
where the general purpose of education has undergone 
a complete change we have seen that the instruction of the 
schools, in its essential features, has remained practically 



4 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

unchanged. Thus the pagan Greek, the religionist of the 
monastery, and the practical modern man have lived and 
thrived on an educational pabulum that was much the same. 

III. Beginnings of Modern Secondary Education 

The first important changes to appear looking clearly 
toward modern life seem to have been due to a recognition 
of the direct relationship of education to the common needs 
of life. These changes came as a result of an effort to 
adjust the training of such schools as we are here discuss- 
ing to the necessities of a given environment. This ten- 
dency is particularly manifest in the introduction of the 
study of the mother tongue and of the natural sciences 
and geography. Such changes, mostly of a practical 
nature, came chiefly through the development of the city 
schools ; but even there the Latin school continued to be 
the prevailing type. 

The Renaissance, while it brought a revival of antiquity, 
also brought a strong tendency to shape the training of 
the schools more in accordance with the changed condi- 
tions and purposes of modern life. / Combined with this 
was the influence of Aristotle ^ who passed on to the mod- 
erns, through the revival of Greek learning, the funda- 
mental idea of making nature and man the basis for the 
discovery of truth. In the reorganization of the educa- 
tional systems of Europe at this time the Gymnasium 
appeared, chiefly as a school preparatory to the work of 
the universities. The coming of the Reformation, with the 
influence of Luther and Melanchthon, greatly modified 
the work of this school. (Luther believed strongly in the 
training of boys and girls lo some manual vocation as well 
as in the studies of the schools. It was through the 

1 Cf. Monroe, pp. 159 and 355; also Davidson, " Aristotle," p. 162. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 5 

influence of Melanchthon, especially, that the schools 
were secularized and organized into some semblance of a 
system. 

IV. Later Development of Secondary Schools in 

Europe 

The German Gymnasium is the typical secondary school \y 
of early modern Europe. The program of studies, at the 
time of the first organization of this type of school in the 
sixteenth century, consisted of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and 
mathematics, with a study of rhetoric and dialectic in con- 
nection with Latin. 

Toward the close of the seventeenth century there arose 
another influence which greatly modified the existing edu- 
cational system, and marked the real beginning of our 
modern conception of school training. Bacon, in England, 
and Descartes and Leibnitz, in Holland and Germany, were 
leaders in the advocacy of the scientific method, a concep- 
tion of the educational process which they had inherited 
from that modern among the Greeks, Aristotle. (Cf. Da- 
vidson.) Through their influence this new conception of 
educational philosophy found its way into the educational 
systems of Europe. This was at first a movement entirely 
outside of the universities which still stood for the earlier 
monastic types of education. Comenius, who was a close 
student of the scientific movement, became one of the 
prime movers in organizing the secondary schools of 
Europe in accordance with the new inductive system of 
study. It was through him chiefly that the work of the 
Gymnasium was completely organized.^ 

The realism of Francke was also a factor in introducing 
modern educational elements into the secondary schools 

^ Cf. Compayrd, " History of Pedagogy " (Payne), p. 122 and f. 



6 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of Germany. An important result of his teaching was the 
organization in the eighteenth century of the Realschule^ 
the courses in the early types of which included instruction 
in religion and ethics, German, French, and Latin lan- 
guages, writing, arithmetic, drawing, history, geography, 
and the elements of geometry, mechanics, and architec- 
ture. The reckoning school ^ of the free cities may be 
said to have been the prototype of the Realschule^ and 
doubtless also of the modern type of trade school charac- 
teristic of the German system. Other conditions, as far as 
secondary education is concerned, seem to have remained 
comparatively at a standstill during the eighteenth century, 
with, possibly, a retrogression toward ecclesiastical domi- 
nation and the emphasis of the humanities. At the same 
time in the universities the way was being prepared for 
the great changes which were to follow. 

The Napoleonic wars, and the arousing of a national 
spirit among the German states, resulted not only in lay- 
ing the foundations for the empire, but also brought with this 
a complete reconstruction of educational policy .^ Under 
the leadership of Humboldt and Wolf the universities 
were reformed, teaching was put on a professional basis, 
and German secondary schools were reorganized on a 
much broader plan than ever before. The influence of 
Fichte is also notable in this connection. The real signifi- 
cance of this change, so far as the program of studies is 
concerned, will become apparent by comparing the earlier 
programs given above with those of the present. (See 
Appendix A.) 

Other changes no less notable in the German secondary 
schools occurred under the great national movement f ollow- 

1 See Jackson, " Educational Significance of Sixteenth Century Arithmetic," p. 170 and £ 

2 Cf. Russell, " German Higher Schools," Chapter IV. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 7 

ing the victorious war with France. First among these 
is the change in the character of the teaching. Under 
religious domination those placed in charge of these 
schools were often very poorly fitted for their tasks, even 
if they had been deeply interested in their work as teach- 
ers. As a matter of fact they seem to have been most 
frequently young men who were preparing for the priest- 
hood, to whom teaching positions were given in order to 
afford them a means of support while they were under- 
going their preparation for religious ministration. 

One of the first things accomplished by Humboldt was 
to make provision for properly trained teachers for these 
schools. From this time only those having a university 
training, supplemented by some professional training and 
experience, were to receive permanent appointments as 
teachers in the secondary schools. As a result, there is 
probably no system of secondary schools in the world 
that can compare with that of the German states in the 
thorough efficiency and soundness of its teaching. Then, 
too, we may well imagine what a transformation came 
later to the spirit of these schools by the act which made 
them the direct instruments toward maintaining a great 
militant empire, instead of being merely a part of the 
peaceful ministration of the church. The seriousness 
of purpose, the realization that this training was for the 
preservation of an empire, naturally made the matter of dis- 
cipline quite a different consideration from anything which 
had previously existed in the schools of the Western world. 

French popular education dates from the days of the 
Revolution ; and French secondary schools in the form of 
the lycee and communal colleges were a part of Napo- 
leon's plan for the organization of a great state system 
of education. Naturally enough, under the ecclesiastical 



8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

domination of educational interests throughout Europe, 
these schools were, from the first, shaped, as to the instruc- 
tion offered, by the dictation of the church. Not until 
1882 were the public lycees secularized. This was a great 
step, but still the Jesuit schools were maintained side by 
side with the lycie and communal colleges. The system 
of moral training introduced as a substitute for the religious 
instruction which had characterized the schools while under 
control of the church was subjected to the severest criti- 
cism by the churchmen. The students of the church 
schools were allowed to enter the examinations for the 
baccalaureate and for the government service at the close 
of the course along with the successful students of the 
public institutions. 

Like the German schools, the form of discipline was 
severe,^ although from causes somewhat different. Here, 
instead of the burden of empire, was the possible failure 
in securing a government appointment, and also the pros- 
pect of a return to complete church domination through 
the superior strength of the private church schools. The 
work was too heavy in proportion to the brief time given 
to relaxation, and that, too, with an utter absence of games 
and vigorous sports. In this latter respect the church 
schools were superior. 

The program of studies has until recently been that of 
the strongly classical type. In 1902 a new plan was 
adopted by which a choice of different groups is offered. 
These groups are, briefly, as follows : — 

Group A, based on Latin and Greek ; 
Group B, an association of classics and modern language ; 
Group C offers little Latin, some modern language, and much physical 
and mathematical science ; 

iCf. Hughes, "The Making of Citizens," p. 215, also p. 222 and f. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 9 

Group D is an association of science and the living languages. 
(For the study programs of the lycks see Appendix A.) 

Under more recent reform movements the state has 
assumed control of the teaching in all secondary schools. 
The teaching in the French secondary schools seems always 
to have been of a high order of its kind, although not so 
high as that of Germany. One cannot study the system 
as it existed throughout the nineteenth century without 
finding oneself rather in sympathy with Ribot, Demolins, 
Guyau, and other French critics of their own national 
schools, who undoubtedly did much to help on the reform 
movement of the present. 

In England we find a marked influence upon education 
arising out of the Reformation. The first notable type of 
secondary school is the one outlined by Milton in the 
" Tractate." His proposed program of studies is as follows : 

Latin — grammar, Quintilian, Cato, Varro, Columella ; 
Greek — grammar, writers on historical philosophy ; 
Greek and Latin literature with logic, rhetoric, and poetics ; 
Mathematics — carried into trigonometry, with applications to forti- 
fications, architecture, engineering, navigation ; 
Astronomy, geography, and natural philosophy ; 
Ethics, economics, politics ; 
Much physical exercise with care as to diet. Music. 

Milton believed there should be but little study in the 
spring, but, rather, contact with nature afield. Thus we 
find him, like Luther, to have had a rather clear con- 
ception of the significance and tendencies of the scientific 
spirit. 

Milton's plan for an academy was not realized at the 
time ; but it is evident to us now that its influence has been 
effective, along with other things, in producing the modern 
conception of secondary education among English-speaking 



lO HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

people. As an actual type of seventeenth-century English 
academy, however, we may note that of John Woodhouse,^ 
located at Sheriffhales in Shropshire. The program of 
this school included lectures on logic, anatomy, mathe- 
matics, natural philosophy, ethics, and rhetoric, and the 
study of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and English composition. 
Thus we find again the type of school corresponding to its 
contemporaries in Germany, — the regular Latin school. 

The secondary schools of England are as distinctly 
Anglo-Saxon as are those of France characteristic of the 
French people. Their existence is best expressed, perhaps, 
by the term " voluntary." If they lack in completeness of 
organization, the fact is to be attributed more to an instinc- 
tive distrust of interference by the state than to any failure 
to appreciate the value and necessity of such schools. " The 
most characteristic feature of the English School," says 
R. E. Hughes, " is its great diversity." There have de- 
veloped as many as five different classes of secondary 
schools, each class in turn representing different varieties. 
The five classes are those controlled (i) by private enter- 
prise, (2) by subscribers, (3) by companies, (4) by endow- 
ment of one form or another, (5) by local authority. (Cf. 
Hughes, p. 299.) 

All these types of secondary schools are very much 
alike as to the program of studies, the central feature of 
which is found in the classic languages. One other not- 
able characteristic is the provision for plays as a part of 
the regular program, — games of many kinds in which all 
who are not actually disabled physically must participate. 
It is this out-of-doors habit in English education which 
attracted the attention of M. Demolins when comparing 
the English with the French system. It was chiefly to 

» See E. E. Brown, " Making of the Middle Schools," p. 163. 



A BACKWARD LOOK H 

this feature that he was pleased to attribute Anglo- 
Saxon superiority as compared with the men of his own 
country.! 

The persistent union of church and state seems to have 
kept the schools of England longer under church control 
than is consistent with the provision of a more liberal 
modern curriculum. As it is, the sciences, mathematics, 
and even modern languages are only tolerated, and the 
great EngHsh literary classics are neglected for the study 
of those of Greece and Rome. The realization of the 
national interest in education seems to have dawned later 
upon the minds of the English people than of other Ger- 
manic races. But recent developments in the government 
schools of England show conclusively that the awakening 
has come, and that henceforth the schools will be admin- 
istered more in the interests of national needs. 

V. Early Secondary Schools in America 

This review of the development of European secondary 
schools, while interesting in itself, is of especial importance 
to us because of the influence these schools have had and 
are still exerting upon the development of secondary edu- 
cation in this country. The secondary types established 
in Germany, England, and France were early transferred 
to the American colonies. Of these the influence of the 
English schools seems to predominate, although evidences 
are not lacking of very distinct influences traceable to the 
French and German types, f The Pilgrims in New Eng- 
land, the Quakers in Pennsylvania, and the Dutch in New 
York brought with them lofty conceptions of education 
and of the kind of schools the colonists should maintain. 
It was William Penn who said: "That which makes a 

* " Anglo-Saxon Superiority," by Edmond Demolins, translated by Lavigne. 



12 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

good constitution must keep it, namely, men of wisdom 
and virtue, qualities that because they descend not with 
worldly inheritance must be carefully propagated by a 
virtuous education of youth, for which spare no cost, for by 
such parsimony all that is saved is lost." In Brodhead's 
** History of the State of New York" we find a fair ex- 
pression of the educational ideals of the Dutch in the fol- 
lowing : " Neither the perils of war, nor the busy pursuit 
of gain, nor the excitement of political strife, ever caused 
the Dutch to neglect the duty of educating their offspring 
to enjoy that freedom for which their fathers fought. 
Schools were everywhere provided, at the public expense, 
with good schoolmasters, to instruct the children of all 
classes in the usual branches of education." 

The people of Massachusetts have summed up in their 
constitution, in the following language as set down by John 
Adams, that lofty conception which the Pilgrims sustained 
in regard to education as a public duty. " Wisdom and 
knowledge as well as virtue, diffused generally among the 
body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of 
their rights and liberties, and as these depend on spread- 
ing the opportunities and advantages of education in the 
various parts of the country, and among the different orders 
of the people, it shall be the duty of legislatures and 
magistrates, in all future periods of the Commonwealth, to 
cherish the interests of literature and the sciences and all 
seminaries of them, especially the university at Cambridge, 
public schools, and grammar schools in the towns; to en- 
courage private societies and public institutions, by re- 
wards and immunities, for the promotion of agriculture, 
arts, science, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a na- 
tional history of the country ; to countenance and inculcate 
the principles of humanity and general benevolence, public 



A BACKWARD LOOK 



13 



and private charity, industry and frugality, honesty and 
punctuality in all their dealings ; sincerity and humor, and 
all social affections and generous sentiments among the 
people." 

With the development of such educational sentiment as 
is thus expressed among the early colonists it is not sur- 
prising that a high type of secondary training early made 
its appearance in America. As early as 1743 we find the 
announcement of Franklin's plan for an academy.^ Ac- 
cording to his plan all were to be taught penmanship, draw- 
ing (with perspective), arithmetic (with accounts and the 
first principles of geometry and astronomy), and the Eng- 
lish language (grammar, oral reading, and composition). 
Great stress was laid on the teaching of English. Read- 
ings in history were made to constitute the vital center of 
the whole plan of instruction. Around this were to be 
arranged geography, chronology, ancient customs, oratory, 
civil government, logic, languages, morality, and religion. 
There were also to be readings in natural history, with 
practical exercises in agriculture and horticulture. Com- 
merce, industry, and mechanics were to be included in the 
program. The languages to be studied were Latin, Greek, 
German, French, Spanish. The choice of language was 
made to depend on the preparation sought. Although 
Franklin is said to have been influenced by Defoe, his 
conception of an academy bears marks of that originality 
characteristic of all that he did. The fact that the educa- 
tional interests of Philadelphia to-day, both public and pri- 
vate, have peculiar qualities which distinguish them from 
all other American cities is doubtless due to the influence 
of Penn and Frankhn. One is not surprised, for instance, 
to find in the Philadelphia of to-day a Drexel Institute, a 

1 See E E. Brown, " Making of the Middle Schools," p. i8o. 



14 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

School of Industrial Arts, and various manual training 
schools, to say nothing of a day school of trades, of 
high school grade, for boys, — the first of its kind in 
America. 

I In 1 75 1 an academy was opened in Philadelphia. It 
was organized in three schools of Latin, English, and 
mathematics, each under a separate master. The Moravian 
academy of Nazareth Hall was also founded in Pennsyl- 
vania in 1755-1756. The subjects taught in this acad- 
emy were, besides elementary branches, English, German, 
Latin, French, and Greek languages, history, geography, 
mathematics, music, drawing. The Moravian influence is 
of interest here as marking the early transfer to America 
of the educational ideals of Comenius, an influence which 
was also felt through the use of his text-books, especially 
at Cambridge and in Boston. 

One of the most notable American academies, and one 
which we may study to some advantage in its evolution 
from an early to a modern type of private secondary school 
is Phillips Academy, at Andover, founded in 1778. As 
first established it was to teach : First, piety and virtue ; 
second, English, Latin, and Greek languages, together with 
I writing, arithmetic, music, and the art of speaking; third, 
practical geometry, logic, geography ; fourth, other liberal 
arts and sciences or languages, as opportunity and ability 
might admit. A little over a century later we find it offer- 
ing two full programs of study, one English and the other 
classical. (See Appendix B.) Numerous other private 
secondary schools developed at an early day in our history. 
These were, for the most part, college preparatory schools, 
and so remain at the present time. To this type belong 
Phillips Academy and also Phillips Exeter, founded three 
years later at Exeter, New Hampshire. These institutions 



A BACKWARD LOOK 15 

are distinctively English in type and preserve to the pres- 
ent time features in their organization characteristic of 
English secondary schools. 

Other less notable academies offered general instruction 
to such as might apply, either for a few months or as a 
continuous course. They were generally very flexible as 
to courses taught, adapting their offerings to the needs of 
such students as sought this much of higher training or 
preparation for college. These academies may be said 
to have originated the practice of the elective system ^ in 
American secondary schools. 

VI. Evolution of the Public High School 

We come now to a consideration of secondary education 
as a part of the public school system of the United States. 
In selecting the following types the aim has been to in- 
clude such school systems as will best present the lead- 
ing influences that have been operative in the development 
of our high schools. [Jhe first secondary schools of a pub- 
lic nature were known as grammar schools after their 
English prototype. These were schools of the Latin type, 
and were organized chiefly as college preparatory schools. 
As we shall see in a later chapter,^ these schools were 
established generally throughout the colonies, and espe- 
cially in New England. Early in the nineteenth century 
we find some dissatisfaction developing with regard to the 
program of studies offered by the grammar schools. In 
Boston this feeling found expression in the appointment of 
a special committee to draft plans for a new type of sec- 
ondary school. The need of such a school is set forth 
in the following words : " The mode of education now 

* The subject of electives will be found more fully discussed in Chapter VII. 
« Cf. Chapter II. 



i6 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

adopted, and the branches of knowledge that are taught 
at our English Grammar school, are not sufficiently exten- 
sive nor otherwise calculated to bring the powers of the 
mind into operation nor to qualify a youth to fill usefully 
and respectably many of those stations, both public and 
private, in which he may be placed." ^ 

As a result there was organized in 1821 the Boston Eng- 
lish Classical School, afterward known as the English High 
School. The first program of studies proposed for this 
school, which was exclusively for boys, was as follows : ^ — 

First Class. — Composition, reading from the most approved authors, 
exercises in criticism, composing a critical analysis of the language, 
grammar, and style of the best English authors, their errors and beau- 
ties, declamation, geography, arithmetic continued. 

Second Class. — Composition, reading, exercises in criticism, decla- 
mation, algebra, ancient and modern history and chronology, logic, 
geometry, plane trigonometry, and its application to mensuration of 
heights and distances, navigation, surveying, mensuration of surfaces 
and solids, forensic discussions. 

Third Class. — Composition, exercises in criticism, declamation, 
mathematics, logic, history, particularly that of the United States, natu- 
ral philosophy, including astronomy, moral and political philosophy. 

Here we find the first school of the Realschule type in 
America. 

In the report of the examiners of the English High 
School for 1850, of which body S. K. Lothrop was chair- 
man, the following recommendation appears : — 

" Intellectual philosophy, political economy, and the Spanish language, 
ought to be introduced as a part of the course. The last two branches 
are of direct importance to every business man in this country, and the 
first should form a part of any system of general intellectual and moral 
culture." 

1 Quoted from school committee's report to the Boston town meeting. See Brown, p. 299. 
^ Cf. Brown, pp. 300-301. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 17 

Again in the report of the examining committee for 1856 
occurs the following comment with reference to the First, 
or graduating, class of the high school : — 

" In Astronomy, particularly nautical Astronomy, in Natural Philoso- 
phy, particularly in the department of mechanic powers and hydraulics,' 
in the French language, and in some portions of Moral Philosophy and 
the Evidences of Christianity, there was a singular degree of uniform 
correctness exhibited." 

In 1858 1 the studies of the First (highest) class were 
enumerated as follows : Trigonometry, and its application 
to surveying, navigation, mensuration, etc., astronomy, 
natural philosophy, moral philosophy, political economy, 
natural theology, Christian evidences, English literature, 
and the French language. The examinations upon these 
subjects occupied two whole days. 

Thus we are enabled to catch glimpses of the forces 
which were operative in developing this first high school 
in America, and, consequently, of the tendencies of our 
earlier secondary pubHc education. (For later programs 
of the Boston high schools, see Appendix B.) 

A study of some of the later programs of this school 
shows that a much broader conception of secondary train- 
ing has developed since its first organization. Not only is 
there a considerable degree of choice provided for, but we 
find Latin reappearing as one of the optional languages. 
Commercial work finds some recognition, and the natural | 
science work takes on a distinctly modern character. The 
organization of a Girls' High School followed, but not 
until some time after that of the English High School 
for Boys. Cooking was introduced into the program of 
this school in 1885. 

In 1893 the Mechanic Arts School was opened. The 

1 See Boston Report for 1858. 



i8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

following quotation from the report of Principal C. W. 
Parmenter in 1895 is significant as plainly setting forth 
what was then considered as the function of such a school 
in distinction from a regular trade school : " The important 
distinction between trade schools and manual training high 
schools cannot be too strongly emphasized, for these two 
classes of institutions are likely to be confused in the 
public mind. It is the function of a trade school to teach 
thoroughly any one of many trades as rapidly as the 
student's ability will permit. No instruction is given that 
does not bear directly upon the chosen trade. Obviously, 
the choice of occupation must be made on entering the 
school. If experience demonstrates that the choice is 
unfortunate, a change necessarily involves considerable loss 
of time. If a boy begins to learn the carpenter's trade and 
discovers, after a time, that he has special aptitude for sign 
painting, the time spent at the bench will not shorten the 
period required to acquire skill with the brush. But the 
conditions of modern industrial life demand the establish- 
ment of trade schools as a substitute for the apprentice 
system, which is rapidly becoming obsolete. They are a 
priceless boon to ambitious boys in the vast army whose 
general education must end with the grammar school, for 
they offer an opportunity to secure quickly a place in the 
ranks of skilled workmen. Nevertheless, the functions of 
a trade school are strictly special ; general education does 
not fall within its scope. 

" The manual training school, on the contrary, teaches the 
elements of mechanic arts primarily on account of their 
educational value, just as arithmetic and geometry are 
taught. But the manual dexterity and the knowledge of 
tools, materials, drafting, and methods of construction 
acquired at school serve to advance boys many stages 



A BACKWARD LOOK ig 

toward the mastery of any trade. Moreover, their ele- 
mentary but systematic knowledge of the entire field of 
mechanic arts gives them the same advantage in dealing 
with the difficult problems of any trade that a liberal edu- 
cation gives to the student of law or medicine." 

It may be noted here that the above characterization of 
a manual training high school has been repeated in schools 
of a like nature organized in both the East and the West. 
Among these are the manual training schools of New 
York, Brookline, Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, and 
Indianapolis. Boston also now includes in her secondary 
group a high school of commerce for boys, a high school 
of practical arts for girls, and several regular mixed high 
schools similar to those of the West. 

Summing up the record of Boston's secondary schools, 
we find first the type of the Gymnasium of the correspond- 
ing period as illustrated in the grammar school and Latin 
school. Then follows the English High School represent- 
ing the Realschule type. Later, as the number of schools 
increased, and as a more liberal view of secondary educa- 
tion developed, we find the English High School returning 
to the classics through the elective system. At the same 
time we find the more specialized type of training making 
its appearance in the cooking department of the Girls' 
School, and a little later in the organization of the manual 
arts schools above mentioned. At the present time Massa- 
chusetts is among the leaders in a movement for the estab- 
lishment of trade schools of a secondary grade. 

The early secondary work of New York was in her acad- 
emies. In 1784 the Board of Regents of the University 
of New York was provided for by statute. This Board of 
Regents was put in control of all the public educational in- 
terests of the state, and of such private interests, to a cer- 



20 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

tain extent, as might be willing to work under their rules. 
In November, 1787, two schools, Erasmus Hall and Clinton 
Academy, were duly incorporated as secondary schools 
under the supervision of the Regents.^ These, with Co- 
lumbia College, constituted the first three institutions of the 
University. In 1788 the two academies mentioned enrolled 
26 and 53 students, respectively. According to the report 
for the same year it appears that Erasmus Hall agreed to 
maintain two departments ; the first to comprise the Latin 
and Greek languages, with geography and the outlines of 
ancient and modern history ; the second, the English lan- 
guage, reading, writing, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. It 
was also agreed that the French language should be taught 
to those that requested it, and that elocution should be given 
in both departments. 

In the case of Clinton Academy it seems that the first 
class had 12 scholars in the Latin and Greek languages, 
logic, natural philosophy, mathematics, and geography ; and 
that the second class had 17 in English grammar, writing, 
arithmetic, and accountantship, and that such as desired it 
were taught the French language. 

At the same meeting there were authorized two courses 
of study: (i) a course for students preparing for college, 
and (2) a course adapted to the needs of those whose edu- 
cation ends with the secondary school. Since that time 
the Regents have exercised control over the program of 
studies for all schools. They have defined the limits of 
elementary and secondary education, and have prepared 
syllabuses covering all subjects taught. Throughout they 
have sought criticism and suggestions from teachers and 
principals as, in part, the basis for revision from time to 
time. 

•^ 1 See Bulletin 27, 1905, New York State Education Department, pp. 3-4. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 21 

The coming of the high school is a late event in the city 
of New York. This occurred in 1897.^ Now there are in 
New York City several great high schools of different 
types, such as the De Witt Clinton High School for Boys, 
the Wadleigh High School for Girls, the High School of 
Commerce, the Morris (coeducational) High School of the 
Bronx, the new Stuyvesant manual training high school, and 
the various Brooklyn high schools. 

While the forward movement may fairly be characterized 
as conservative, yet it has brought the secondary schools 
of New York well forward among progressive schools of 
their kind. From two academies in 1787 the number of 
secondary schools in the state has increased to 799. The 
list of subjects included in the Academic Syllabus of 1905 
is fairly indicative of the progress made as well as the 
scope of the work now included in the programs of those 
schools. (See Appendix C.) 

Thus we see in the case of New York a development 
which is entirely unique so far as American schools are 
concerned. In the conception of a university which it 
embodies it is strikingly like the French system. From 
the very inception of the system under our existence as a 
nation the schools of this great commonwealth have moved 
forward in one closely coordinated group of educational 
interests. In their present form the secondary schools 
embody practically every phase of secondary activity now 
considered as belonging to the machinery of this stage of 
the educative process. ^ ^ 

Another high school system which shows very clearly 
the stages in the evolutionary process through which this 
part of our educational system has passed, is that of St. 
Louis. A further reason for taking this city as a typical 
case is the fact that its high schools have had a unique 

* A high school was organized in 1825 but suspended in 1831. 



22 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

development among Western schools. The first St. Louis 
high school was organized in 1853, and the next year a 
building was erected for high school purposes. In 1856 
the following rule was promulgated for this school : — 

^^ Rule 63.^ — The studies of the High School shall constitute a Gen- 
eral 2si'di Classical course. The Classical course (as at present arranged) 
shall occupy four years, and shall include the studies required for admis- 
sion to the best American colleges ; and may be continued by longer 
attendance, through all the studies requisite for a good classical educa- 
tion. M 

" The General course shall occupy four years, and shall embrace the 
mathematics and drawing necessary for an accomplished engineer ; the 
Latin language, so far as possible and desirable for general culture, for 
more thorough acquaintance with general grammar and with our own 
language, and to facilitate the acquisition of modern language; the 
reading and speaking of German and French; and such studies in 
science and literature as shall best fit pupils for different departments 
of business, and make them generally intelligent." 

Here we have that conception of a high school which, in 
Jefferson's scheme for education, would have been the local 
higher institution covering not only secondary but collegiate 
work, if the conditions demanded. The community itself 
should fix the upper limit, if any was to be placed, to the 
program of studies which this school might offer. Further, 
in the language of the last clause, we find expressed that 
conception of the elective system which seems to have been 
logically carried out in the later development of St. Louis 
high schools. 

In 1863 we find the program of studies more definitely 
outlined, and a choice given between two courses, copies of 
which are given in Appendix D. It will be found interest- 
ing to compare these courses with Milton's proposed course 

'^ See St. Louis Report for 1856. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 



23 



for an academy, with the courses of the German Gymna- 
sium and Realschule^ and the French lycee^ and with 
that of the first English high school of Boston. 

These courses remained in force until Dr. William T. 
Harris became superintendent. His second report^ dis- 
cusses fully the college requirements for entrance and the 
general scope and needs of high school work. In succeed- 
ing reports he discusses at length the high school course, 
analyzing it into its elements and discussing each with 
reference to its purpose in the process of educating youth. 
This discussion is among the earliest marking the advocacy 
of a psychological basis for the determination of the con- 
tent of the curriculum of high schools. In 1 874-1 875 a 
somewhat radical change of program was introduced as a 
result of the influence of Dr. Harris. (See Appendix D.) 
The changes thus brought about mark all the difference, 
practically, between a heavy, traditional program including 
much of what is now really college work, and a modern, 
well-balanced high school program. (For later programs 
of these same schools see Appendix D.) 

The more recent development of high school interests 
in St. Louis still leaves a strong central school with a 
broadly elective general program, and along with this 
two excellent manual training high schools. These latter 
schools are not of the trade-school type, as may be seen 
by an examination of the very liberal courses which they 
offer. It is the present policy of this school system to 
maintain the organic unity of secondary work. To this 
end both manual arts and commercial courses will be pro- 
vided in all the high schools of the city. To-day the high 
schools of St. Louis offer, in all, nine distinct programs, 
as follows : scientific, classical, general, art, college classi- 

* See St. Louis Report for 1868. 



24 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

cal, college scientific, commercial, manual training, and a 
course preparatory to teachers' college. 

It is a fact worthy of consideration here that the newer 
schools of the West were for the most part free from much 
'of the traditional Old World influence which dominated 
most of the earlier Eastern secondary schools, and which, 
curiously enough, we see prevailing also in the earlier 
stages of development of the St. Louis high school. 
Rightly speaking, indeed, we may say that the Middle 
West is the real first home of the typical American high 
school. In Chicago, for instance, the first high school 
was organized in 1856. As early as 1866^ we find the 
program of studies for this high school to be : — 

General Department 
1st year. Algebra. 

German or Latin. 

Physical Geography ^ ; Physiology J. 
2d year. Geometry. 

German or Latin. 

Universal History \ ; Botany \. 
3^ year. Trigonometry and Surveying \ ; Astronomy \, 

German or Latin or French. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Rhetoric \ ; English Literature f . 
Afh year. Chemistry \ ; Geology \. 

German or Latin or French. 

Intellectual Philosophy \ ; Bookkeeping |. 

Constitution of United States \ ; Political Economy |. 

Classical Department 
1st year. Algebra. 
Latin. 
Physical Geography \ ; Physiology \. 

1 See Chicago Report for 1866. 



A BACKWARD LOOK 25 

2d year. Geometry. 

Latin. 

Universal History. 

Greek, last | year. 
3^ year, Greek. 

Latin. 

Natural Philosophy \ ; English Literature |. 
/^hyear. Greek. 

Latin, including Prose Composition. 
(See Appendix E for recent programs.) 

In all their subsequent development the program of 
studies for the Chicago schools has been on a broad mod- 
ern basis, although in the development of the later types 
of industrial education there seems to be a distinct ten- 
dency to revert to the Eastern plan of segregating these 
from the general high school type. What is true of Chi- 
cago in respect to the evolution of secondary training in 
general is also true of most of the important minor cities 
of the Middle West and the Pacific coast. This statement 
does not apply, however, in the case of industrial education. 

Along with the changes which have occurred in the 
program of studies since the first organization of second- 
ary schools in this country are to be noted important 
changes in methods and in discipline. In these changes 
the schools of the Middle West have also taken the lead. 
It is to them that is to be attributed the chief influence 
which has brought into general use the laboratory method 
in science, and the more general application of the scien- 
tific method in teaching. From the severe methods of 
discipline inherited from England and other European 
schools the high schools of the Middle West have led us 
into the adoption of that peculiar democratic type of high 
school discipline which is the crowning glory of the Amer- 
ican educational system. 



26 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

We have seen in this brief historical review and com- 
parative study the lines of influence which have come to 
our high schools from the corresponding schools of Eu- 
rope. We may also note some features which are dis- 
tinctively American. Among the most important of these 
is, first of all, the fact that our schools are established and 
maintained, at public cost, for the masses. They are sup- 
ported by local taxation and their government is by local 
authorities. They are characteristically coeducational ex- 
cept in those sections where European types have domi- 
nated from the first. Even in these sections the later 
tendency is to coeducational schools. Thus far the pre- 
vailing practice has been to preserve the organic unity of 
high schools rather than to segregate them into general 
and industrial types. Instead of such segregation the 
elective system is in vogue, thus making diversity of cur- 
riculum possible along with organic unity. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1 . The growth of schools in the free cities of mediaeval Europe and 
their influence on modern secondary schools. 

2. The early scientific movement and its effect on secondary 
education. 

3. The educational teachings of Comenius and Francke as affecting 
secondary schools. 

4. Humboldfs policy concerning secondary education. 

5. The influence of Christianity upon the early development of 
secondary education. 

6. Napoleon's scheme for national education and the place of the 
secondary school in it. 

7. Old World traditions as affecting secondary education in the 
United States. 

8. The "grammar schools " of colonial days and later. 

References. — " Text-book in the History of Education," Monroe ; " Histor- 
ical Survey of Pre-Christian Education," Laurie; "Aristotle and the Ancient 



A BACKWARD LOOK 



27 



Educational Ideals," also " Education of the Greek People," Davidson ; " Old 
Greek Education," Mahaffy; "History of Pedagogy," Parker; "Study of the 
Prototypes of the Modern Non-Professional School among the Greeks and 
Romans," Anderson; Ped. Sem. 14:1-38; "History of Education," Painter; 
" History of Ancient and Modern Education," Williams ; " Educational Signifi- 
cance of Sixteenth Century Arithmetic," Jackson ; " Christian Schools and 
Scholars," Drane ; " A Study of Mediaeval Schools and School Work," Anderson ; 
Ped. Sem. 14 : 223-282 ; " Educational Reformers," Quick ; " Humanism in Edu- 
cation," Jebb ; " The Great Didactic," " Orbis Pictus," Comenius ; " Tractate on 
Education," Milton ; " Comenius," also " Milton's Theory of Education " (in 
"Essays and Addresses"), Laurie; "Education in the Nineteenth Century," 
Roberts; "National Education in the German States," Barnard; "Educational 
Foundations of Trade and Industry," Ware; "Systems of Education," Gill; 
" English Education," Sharpless ; " Making of Citizens," Hughes, R. E. ; " English 
National Education," Holman ; " The Educational Systems of Great Britain and 
Ireland," Balfour ; "German Higher Schools," Russell; "A General View of the 
History and Organization of Public Education in the German Empire," W. Lexis 
(tr. by Tamson) ; U. S. Commissioner of Education, Report of 1899-1900, Vol. I., 
pp. 828-843, article on " Secondary Education in Germany " ; " A French Eton," 
Arnold; U. S. Commissioner's Report, 1905, Vol. I,, article on "Education in 
France " ; " Our Colonial Curriculum," Meriwether ; " Education in the United 
States," Boone; " History of Education in the United States," Dexter; " Making of 
the Middle Schools," Brown; "The New York Public Schools," Palmer; Regent's 
Reports, University of New York ; Bulletin 27, " Secondary Education," New York 
State Education Department; Reports of Boston, St. Louis, Chicago, Kansas 
City; " The Central High School of Philadelphia," Edmonds. 



CHAPTER II 

LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 

A people's estimate of the value of an institution is 
often expressed in the laws they make. It is probably 
true of education, for instance, that the laws concerning 
the schools of the masses are the highest expression on 
the part of their leaders as to the training of the young in 
which the masses are able to acquiesce. School laws are 
certainly the basis for all school administration. No dis- 
cussion having to do with the administration of secondary 
schools, therefore, would be complete without some in- 
quiry as to the legislation which stands back of such 
administration. 

I. Legal Enactments for Colonial Schools 

For the beginning of this legal status in America we are 
not left in doubt. We must go directly to the history of 
the colonies.^ We find that as early as November, 1647, 
by a decree of the General Court, the colonists of Massa- 
chusetts set a legalized approval on secondary education. 
This decree reads as follows : " And it is forthwith ordered 
that where any town shall increase to the number of one 
hundred families or householders, they shall set up a 
grammar school, the master thereof being able to instruct 
youth so far as they may be fitted for the university, pro- 

1 For the facts referring to colonial legislation on schools given in the next few pages the 
author is largely indebted to Clews, " Educational Legislation and Administration of the 
Colonial Governments." 

28 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 29 

vided, that if any town neglect that performance hereof 
above one year, that every such town shall pay five pounds 
to the next school till they shall perform the order." 

There is surely no uncertain note about this. The act 
goes directly and vigorously to the accomplishment of a 
desired purpose. Similar acts were put in force by Con- 
necticut and New Hampshire. Rhode Island, a little more 
democratically inclined, perhaps, by the nature of her 
foundation, intrusted to town governments and to chari- 
table persons and corporations the prerogative of making 
provision for secondary education. 

In the province of New Amsterdam, through the coop- 
eration of the town and the West India Company, a gram- 
mar school was first opened in 1659. This course was 
confirmed later under British possession, and in 1702 the 
General Assembly of the province of New York passed 
an act establishing a grammar free school in the city of 
New York. The nature of this school, as well as the 
custom then in force as to licensing of teachers, is well 
expressed by the following document issued by the gov- 
ernor to the first teacher under the new act : — 

"To Mr. George Muirson, Greeting: 

" I do hereby authorize and impower you to teach and keep school 
within the City of New York, and to instruct all children with whom 
you shall be entrusted in the English, Latin and Greek tongues or 
languages and also in the arts of writing and arithmetic. You are 
therefore carefully and diligently to discharge the duty of school- 
master in the said city and you are to receive and enjoy all such 
privileges and advantages as to the office and place of a schoolmaster 
doth or may belong. Whereof the mayor, all his Majesty's justices of 
the peace and other officers within the said city are hereby required 
to take notice and govern themselves accordingly. 

" Given under my hand and seal at arms at Fort Anne in New York, 
this twenty-fifth day of April, 1704. 

"CORBURY." 



30 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

In Pennsylvania the school which came to be known as 
the William Penn Charter School was evidently at least 
partially secondary in nature. It was founded in 1689 and 
provided for " maintaining, teaching and instructing such 
and so many poor children of both sexes in reading, work, 
languages, arts and sciences." 

Maryland, as early as 1694, passed an act providing for 
the establishment of " a free school or schools, or place of 
study of Latin, Greek, writing, and the like." Other acts 
subsequent to this provided for schools in different parts 
of the province. 

In 1 710 the legislature of North Carolina passed an act 
for the establishment of free schools to teach grammar, and 
other arts and sciences. The master of the school was to 
be ** capable to teach the learned languages, that is to say, 
the Latin and Greek tongues, and also the useful parts of 
mathematics." 

From these facts it is easy to see that a pretty general 
sentiment in favor of Latin schools prevailed throughout 
the colonies. Evidence is not lacking that this sentiment 
was, more or less, disseminated from the New England 
colonies and from Pennsylvania. This readily prepares 
us to find the legal status of secondary schools clearly de- 
fined even in the early laws of the New England states. 

II. Laws regulating New England High Schools 

Most of these states at the present time, either directly 
or by implication, set forth in pretty definite terms the 
characteristics of a modern high school. Maine, New 
Hampshire, and Vermont give specific definitions, the most 
complete of which is in the Vermont law. It reads as fol- 
lows : *' A school maintained by a town, city or incorporated 
school district for thirty-three or more weeks in each school 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 31 

year, taught by a teacher or teachers of competent ability, 
good morals and legal certification, having an established 
course or courses of study for four years, or a part thereof, 
said course or courses following a nine years' elementary 
course or its equivalent, and providing instruction in all or 
part of the subjects usually taught in secondary schools of 
good standing, such as the English language and literature, 
higher mathematics, history, natural, political, social, moral 
and industrial sciences, ancient and modern languages, art, 
music and physical culture, shall be a high school." 

Laws which further define the status of Vermont high 
schools provide that any town may, and every town of 
twenty-five hundred population or more must, maintain a 
high school ; that instruction shall be such as to fit pupils 
for college ; that towns having incorporated graded schools 
or academies may arrange to send pupils to these at public 
expense; that where no high school or academy exists 
boards must provide for instruction in other near-by towns ; 
that within certain limitations, towns thus paying tuition to 
other towns may be allowed a rebate of the same by the 
treasurer of the state. 

While the Vermont laws are somewhat more specifically 
worded than others, yet the chief points embodied in them 
may be considered as characteristic of New England. Ad- 
ditional provisions in other New England states are : In 
some states, as Massachusetts and Connecticut, transporta- , 
tion is provided, at state expense, to those attending at a 
neighboring town ; in the latter state night schools are re- 
quired to be established in towns of ten thousand or more 
population ; in Massachusetts every city and town contain- 
ing twenty thousand or more inhabitants shall maintain 
the teaching of manual training as part of its high school 
system, and evening high schools must be maintained by 



32 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

every city of fifty thousand or more ; in Rhode Island 
the high school is largely controlled by a state board of 
education. 

Another feature common to some of the New England 
states is legislation providing for the establishment of in- 
dustrial schools of different types. 

III. Middle Atlantic States 

Passing to the Middle Atlantic states a marked change 
is apparent. New Jersey alone defines the high school, 
and then only in very general terms. In all these states 
the establishment of high schools is left almost entirely to 
the discretion of boards of education. Delaware does not 
mention high schools in her laws, but the implication is 
that they are a part of the common free schools. 

In Pennsylvania the secondary schools are divided into 
three classes. The first class, or grade, includes four-year 
high schools, the second grade three-year schools, and 
the third grade two-year schools. These high schools re- 
ceive state aid according to grade. Children living in dis- 
tricts not having high schools may have their tuition and 
books paid for by the district from which they go. Joint 
township or district high schools may also be estab- 
lished. Teachers' certificates must state the branches 
to be taught by the holder. The course of instruction 
for high schools must be prescribed or approved by the 
state superintendent. 

The laws of the state of New York provide for the 
appropriation of ";^20 per year for a school year of at 
least thirty-two weeks, or a proportionate amount for a 
period of not less than eight weeks for each non-resident 
pupil attending the academic department of such school 
from districts in this state not maintaining such academic 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS ^^ 

department and who shall be admitted to such academic 
department without other expense for tuition than that 
provided herein." This applies only to approved high 
schools. A later law further provides that where the cus- 
tomary tuition charge is more than $20 per year the dis- 
trict from which the pupil goes may, by vote, make up the 
additional amount. 

Another interesting feature in the case of New York 
is that the state makes a special appropriation to high 
schools providing professional instruction in the prin- 
ciples of education and in the method of instruction. 
These courses must be of at least thirty-eight weeks' dura- 
tion in each school year. Minnesota also appropriates 
the sum of ^750 a year to four-year high schools that 
maintain courses for normal instruction in the common 
branches. 

The laws of New York place the responsibility of 
constructing courses of study upon the local boards of 
education. The Regents of the University, however, 
are charged with the annual apportionment of nearly 
;^5 50,000 among approved secondary schools having 
membership in the University. Now as the Regents 
fix the regulations with which these schools must com- 
ply,' they thereby exercise practical control over the pro- 
grams of study of such schools, whether public or private. 
Pursuant to this directive authority, the state department 
also issues a syllabus for secondary schools, subject to re- 
vision once in five years, and outlining rather definitely 
the courses of instruction that must be pursued by stu- 
dents that take state examinations under the regulations 
governing the apportionment of the distributable fund for 
aid to secondary schools. 



34 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

IV. The North Central and Western Groups 

Among the states of the North Central and Western 
groups, the secondary school stands out prominently in 
the laws of Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and California. 
In two of these states, Ohio and Minnesota, the high 
school is fully defined. (See Appendix G.) In Ohio and 
Missouri high schools are classified in three grades, the 
same as in Pennsylvania. 

The following states in these groups make legal pro- 
vision for the establishment of township or union district 
high schools : Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wiscon- 
sin, Missouri, Colorado, South Dakota, Utah, Washington. 
Similar provision is made in the laws of New Jersey, West 
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Arizona. 

The purpose of providing for such schools is chiefly, 
first, to enable rural districts to furnish high school facili- 
ties for the more advanced pupils; second, to make a 
larger high school district in order the more justly to dis- 
tribute the burden of maintaining high schools in country 
towns and cities. 

V. Township and County High Schools 

The idea of the township high school seems to have 
originated in Indiana. It probably owes its origin to the 
congressional act which set aside one section in each town- 
ship for school purposes. This type of school flourishes 
in Indiana, where 580 were reported in 1904. 

In Illinois the township school has proved a means of 
enlarging the high school district, and thus establishing 
strong high schools in districts where they would other- 
wise be impossible. These township schools are usually 
located in cities or towns. They enjoy many advantages, 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 35 

as compared with city and town high schools. They are 
free from many of the disturbing influences to be found 
in small cities and towns. They are more capable finan- 
cially, and are thus able to have better buildings, equip- 
ment, and teachers. The teachers, being better paid, stay 
longer in one school, thus giving stability and greater con- 
tinuity to the work of the high school. 

The only important objection to these schools is in the 
fact that they are divorced from the otherwise unified 
system of graded schools. Forty or more have been es- 
tablished in Illinois, and in recent years they have become 
more and more popular. 

For similar reasons we find the following states have 
given legal sanction to the establishment of county high 
schools : Indiana, Wisconsin (agricultural), Iowa, Kansas, 
Colorado, Nevada, Nebraska, California, Oregon, Montana, 
Oklahoma. Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, and Florida among the Southern group make simi- 
lar provision for county schools. A more recent feature 
is the county high school fund as established in Nebraska 
and Kansas. In the latter state an enactment passed in 
1905 established a county high school fund which is made 
distributable to districts maintaining free high schools. 
This is known as the Barnes law, and has the effect of 
giving to every youth in Kansas the advantages of a high 
school education free of all tuition. It is a local option 
measure, but has already been adopted by forty-three 
counties. (See Appendix F.) 

The county high school is doubtless an offshoot from 
Jefferson's conception of a school system. It is a type of 
institution which serves a very important purpose, or 
rather purposes ; for it has been found useful in different 
ways than Jefferson ever dreamed of. It is becoming 



36 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

more and more common in the South and in the mountain- 
ous states of the West. In the South, among other things, 
it greatly simplifies the control of high schools for the 
whites in those sections where the negro population is 
relatively large. In the West it makes possible high 
schools in regions where the people of a county are con- 
fined chiefly to the valleys, and where often the greater 
part of the county is practically uninhabitable. 

In both the above situations the county high school 
often becomes a great boon, as it makes possible a good 
high school training for all, even in regions too sparsely 
settled by white people, or by any people, to admit of 
maintaining high schools in smaller districts. 

VI. States having Limited Enactments or not men- 
tioning High Schools 

In the following states the only legal enactments con- 
cerning high schools are those authorizing boards of 
education to establish such higher grade schools : Mary- 
land, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas (makes it the duty of 
boards), Wyoming (the constitution makes it mandatory), 
and the territory of New Mexico. In several of the 
states the action of the board is made conditional on a 
vote by the people of the district. In the case of Vir- 
ginia the law specifies that the schools of higher grade are 
not to be allowed to interfere with the schools of lower 
grade. The Maine law especially declares that " the an- 
cient or modern languages and music shall not be taught 
therein [referring to high schools] except by direction of 
the superintending school committees having supervision 
thereof." 

In a number of states the teaching of physiology and 
hygiene with reference to intoxicants and narcotics is pre- 
scribed as part of the high school course. 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 37 

In five states, Delaware, Texas, Georgia, Kentucky, 
Idaho, no mention whatever is made of high schools in 
the laws. The same is true of Illinois so far as the gen- 
eral school law is concerned. In several special charters 
of cities in Illinois high schools are provided for, as also 
under the township high school law. 

In all of the states where the law is silent in regard to 
high schools it is fair to say that the general statutory 
provisions for schools may readily be construed to include 
such schools. In many states, in fact, the constitutions, 
in providing for the establishment of schools, are readily 
capable of such construction. In one or two cases only 
does the constitution specifically mention high schools.^ 
In the case of Illinois the constitution declares that " the 
General Assembly shall provide a thorough and efficient 
system of free schools, whereby all children of this state 
may receive a good common school education." The 
courts have construed the phrase ** common school educa- 
tion" as properly including the high schools. Another 
interesting case as recent as 1904 is that of the Board of 
Education of Lawrence, Kansas, vs. Dick et al.y in which 
the state supreme court ruled in substance that high schools 
are a part of the free common schools of Kansas, and 
therefore tuition cannot rightfully be charged for attend- 
ance at such schools by any person of legal school age. 
Both these decisions are in accord with that of the famous \ 
Kalamazoo case, which sustained the law giving to school 
boards in Michigan the authority and making it their duty 
to estabhsh high schools when ordered by vote of the 
people. These cases ^ may be said to express the status 

1 See constitutions of Wyoming and Utah. 

2 See Illinois 92-612, case of Richards vs. Raymond; also Kansas Board of Education of 
Lawrence vs. Dick et al.; also Stuart vs. School District No. 1 of Kalamazoo, 30 Mich. 69. 



38 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of high schools in all states where no special mention is 
made of them in the law. 

VII. Importance of Recent Legislation 

The past few years have seen great changes in many- 
states with regard to legal provisions for establishing and 
maintaining high schools. This is particularly true of the 
South and West. These newer provisions lift the high 
school into greater prominence as a factor in our legalized 
system of schools. One of the prominent elements in 
this legal phase of educational movement is the effort to 
find a more satisfactory basis for maintaining high schools. 
As the popular demand for high school education has 
increased at a rapid rate, school authorities have found it 
necessary to provide more adequate financial support in 
order to keep pace with this growth without neglecting 
the elementary schools. 

Aside from the question of financing the higher schools, 
a frequent subject for legislative enactment has been 
along the line of industrial training, including manual 
training, domestic arts, and agriculture. These elements 
are thrusting themselves into the field of high school ad- 
ministration with great insistence at the present time, with 
indications that the next decade is to bring many changes 
from our present scheme of secondary education. 

VIII. State High School Boards 

State high school boards or state boards of education 
having more or less definite supervision over high schools, 
especially with reference to the program of studies and 
the apportionment of state aid, are provided for by the 
laws of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Lou- 
isiana, Arizona (territorial), Indiana, Minnesota, Virginia, 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 



39 



South Carolina, North Dakota, and Washington.^ In a 
great majority of cases, however, the program of studies 
is subject to the approval of local boards of education. 
The usual procedure in these cases is for the principal or 
superintendent to make recommendations subject to the 
approval of the board. 

IX. Certification of High School Teachers 

The situation among the states as regards the certifica- 
tion of high school teachers is by no means uniform. In 
a majority of cases no discrimination is made between 
such certification and that of teachers of elementary 
schools. In such instances the standard is usually that of 
the first grade common school certificate. This is true 
in most of the New England and Eastern states ; but in 
these cases the standard for elementary certificates is 
usually higher in the case of first grades than in the West 
and South, and includes several of the more fundamental 
high school subjects. 

In Pennsylvania the certificate must state the branches 
to be taught, including high school subjects. West Vir- 
ginia requires that examinations be passed on high school 
subjects to be taught by the applicant, in addition to the 
common branches. In Indiana the general law for cer- 
tification of teachers has been interpreted by the state 
department of education to mean that high school teachers 
must be examined on subjects to be taught. In Wisconsin 
secondary teachers are held to certain special requirements 
as to certification. In Oklahoma a general certificate or 
state high school certificate is required. 

West Virginia, Virginia, Ohio, Nebraska, Colorado, Ne- 
vada, California, and Oklahoma provide for the issuance 

1 In the case of New York this same function is vested in the Regents of the University. 



40 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of a special high school teachers' certificate. This latter 
plan would seem to be the consistent one. It is rather 
remarkable that a system of certification should have be- 
come so generally prevalent in regard to high school 
teachers which is in no sense in harmony with the plain 
reading of most of the state laws on this subject. 

In nearly all states one of the requirements of a valid 
contract is that the teacher who is party to the same shall 
have a certificate giving assurance of competency to teach. 
With secondary teachers, however, the examination and 
certification usually bear little or no relationship to the 
candidate's competency to teach the subjects required to 
be taught in the high school. Such a state of things is 
not calculated to elevate professional standards among 
teachers. If we argue that superintendents and boards 
are competent to protect the schools against poorly quali- 
fied teachers and to preserve a high standard of excellence 
among secondary schools, then we are making out a pretty 
strong case against the necessity of any certification at all. 

If teachers are to be licensed, over and above some 
reliable evidence of adequate training in scholarship and 
professionally, let us insist upon a licensing which fairly 
meets the spirit and intent of existing legislation on the 
subject. 

X. Provisions for Financial Support 

Probably the most fundamental point in the legal status 
of public secondary education is to be found in the provi- 
sions made for its financial support. We have found that 
some of the states do not legally recognize the high school 
as a special department of the common schools. If to 
these we add other states which go no farther than to 
authorize the estabHshment of high schools, we shall find 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 41 

that in a considerable number of the states no provision is 
made for their support other than through the common 
fund for pubHc school purposes. 

At first thought such provision seems fair enough ; but 
when we come to consider the fact that the results of high 
school training are apt to bear a more direct relationship 
to the successful conduct of business and industries than 
elementary schools, and that, too, over a wider area than 
the community in which the school is maintained, another 
phase of the question at once presents itself. 

This latter element to the problem has been met in dif- 
ferent ways by different states. One of these is in the 
form of state aid to high schools. Eighteen states provide 
for some form of aiding in the support of high schools out 
of the general funds of the state. In Vermont, Massa- 
chusetts, New Hampshire, and New York this appears in 
the form of rebates to districts where no high school exists 
for tuition paid to other districts. The purpose of such a 
plan evidently is to apply the aid to the weaker districts 
in such a manner as to insure the advantages of a high 
school training to all children who are otherwise properly 
qualified. 

In Connecticut the state offers aid in the establishment 
of high school libraries and in providing suitable appa- 
ratus for laboratory work in physics and chemistry. 

Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont, Rhode Island, New 
York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
North Dakota, Virginia, South Carolina, and California 
apportion a special high school fund among the high 
schools of the state according to grade or efficiency. (See 
Appendix G.) Alabama gives state aid to county high 
schools, while Washington gives a bonus to union districts, 
and Kansas subsidizes industrial training in high schools. 



42 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Here we find more nearly represented a scheme which rec- 
ognizes the broader influence of the high school. Coupled 
with this there is undoubtedly the further purpose of re- 
lieving local taxation in order that communities may the 
better provide for the support of elementary schools. 

Another interesting method by which districts, otherwise 
too weak, are able to provide high schools for the more ad- 
vanced children, is found in the union district, township, or 
county high school. Twenty-nine states and one territory 
make provision for at least one of these forms of the larger 
high school district. Thus, rural communities are able to 
provide for themselves all the facilities enjoyed by the 
more densely populated centers. The establishment of a 
larger taxable area for high school support also offers a 
means of relief to the overburdened town or small city, 
much of the population of which is apt to be made up of 
land owners, whose chief interests lie in the rural districts. 
The justness of such a plan seems evident enough, and 
there is no good reason why people of the rural communi- 
ties should so violently oppose the plan, as they often do 
when effort is made thus to enlarge the high school district. 

Nebraska meets the problem by a slightly different 
method. A special tax is provided for, to be levied on the 
rest of the county, to pay the tuition of non-resident pupils 
who attend some established high school. In Kansas, 
formerly, the excessive cost of the high school was provided 
for by requiring all pupils to pay tuition. This threw the 
burden upon individual families having children to school. 
Under the Barnes law already referred to, this apparent 
defect is remedied by a provision similar to that of Ne- 
braska. 

Among these different methods of providing for the 
more equitable distribution of the financial support of high 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 43 

schools, the one of the larger high school district is seen to 
be most prevalent. It readily meets the need for a more 
liberal support than is possible where all school expenses 
are borne by the ordinary school district. At the same 
time it carries with it the principle of direct participation on 
the part of the people supporting it, which is recognized as 
an essential factor where democratic institutions are to be 
fostered. 

State aid, on the other hand, does little or no better in 
regard to the distribution of the burden. The state at 
large must maintain its normal schools, university, and 
corrective institutions, to say nothing about those of a more 
specifically philanthropic nature. 

The line of reasoning which makes it appear just and 
proper for the state to aid in the support of high schools 
may also apply to the country at large in the case of state 
educational institutions. The normal school does not train 
teachers solely for the state in which it is located. Our 
free system of supply and demand in that respect may 
send graduates of a state normal school to every state in 
the Union. So, also, a state university trains teachers, 
business men, lawyers, physicians, engineers, farmers, 
chemists, bacteriologists, not merely for the state in which 
it is located, but for the entire country and the world at 
large. 

Now the national government is in a better position to 
collect the royalties which certain great industries owe to 
the public schools, because of the latter's dissemination of 
intelligence, than any state can possibly be, say nothing 
of local school districts. Many of these industries and 
commercial enterprises owe their great profits to the fact 
that they are national in character and continental in extent. 
On this basis they must be valued, if valued at all justly, 



44 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

for the purposes of taxation. Why would it not be better 
still for the nation to extend greater aid to higher education 
and the training of teachers, thus relieving the burden 
somewhat in the form of direct local taxation ? This would 
then leave the people free to devote more of the resources 
of local levies to maintaining the elementary and secondary 
schools, — the schools which, by their nature, attach them- 
selves directly to the community life. 

The principle of national aid already has well-established 
precedent. Not only has the national government aided 
greatly in the establishment of universities and normal 
schools through the early land grants, but it has also, more 
recently, appropriated funds especially in the interests of 
agricultural training. It is notable, too, in this latter case, 
that it has been proposed to include secondary schools 
among the beneficiaries of the nation. 

No one questions the propriety of maintaining, at national 
cost, institutions for the training of military and naval 
officers. Yet in the perpetuation of our national existence 
we are certainly no less in need of trained teachers and 
those expert in various lines of civil public service. 

XI. Legislation concerning Text-books 

Another subject which has been the cause of much edu- 
cational legislation is that of text-books. In many cases, 
however, such legislation is not made to apply to high 
schools. The reasons for excepting high schools, as gener- 
ally given, are, first, that the nature of high school work 
demands more freedom in regard to texts than is required 
in the case of elementary schools ; second, the frequent 
change of books in the high school does not affect so large 
a group of pupils, and is therefore not a serious burden. 
The prevalent custom is to leave the selection of text-books 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 45 

in the hands of local boards. About twelve states and 
territories provide for the selection of high school texts 
through a state text-book commission, while four provide 
for county uniformity through the appointment of a com- 
mission for each county. In nine of the states text-books 
are made free to all pupils, while in four other states they 
may be made free at the option of boards of education. 
One state, California, undertakes the publication of its own 
text-books. 

XII. High School Fraternities 

Another question which has caused considerable agita- 
tion during recent years is the Greek letter fraternity in 
high schools. Thus far but one state, Kansas, has enacted 
a law prohibiting such organizations in the high schools of 
the state. Several decisions have been given by courts, 
however, which tend to determine the legal status of high 
schools in this particular. Among the most notable of 
these are the Chicago and Seattle cases. In the latter case, 
known as Wayland vs. Board of School Directors of Dis- 
trict No. I, of Seattle, et al. (August 15, 1906, ^6, p. 642), 
an injunction suit was brought against the board in an 
attempt to restrain them from enforcing a rule which re- 
fused all school privileges except the privilege of class 
attendance and graduation to students who became mem- 
bers of Greek letter societies. The decision of the inferior 
court which was in favor of the defendants was affirmed by 
the higher court. 

In the Chicago case the contention was based on prac- 
tically the same points, and the Board of Education was 
sustained by the decision of the court. At present the 
Chicago school authorities are undertaking to enforce a 
rule which refuses membership in the high schools to 



46 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

students who will not pledge themselves to give up their 
fraternity membership. 

These questions only bring up in a new form the oft- 
repeated ruling that the authority of local boards in mak- 
ing rules and regulations for the government of the schools 
under them, so long as they keep within all specified legal 
limitations to this authority, is absolute and final. They 
are interesting, however, as giving legal expression to opin- 
ions widely prevalent among teachers to the effect that the 
Greek letter fraternities are a serious impediment to whole- 
some high school administration. 

XIII. An Ideal Scheme of Legal Enactments 

Two things must seem evident after a perusal of this 
chapter on the legal status of the high school in this 
country : First, that it is recognized everywhere as a nec- 
essary and legitimate part of our common school system. 
Second, that while we probably have all the elements 
represented, in the country at large, for the successful 
administration of secondary education, yet there are very 
few cases, if any, where individual states have brought 
them all together into a consistent scheme of laws. It is 
s doubtless desirable that room should be allowed for some 
individuality as each commonwealth works out its own 
system ; but it does seem possible for many of the states 
greatly to improve on present conditions, profiting by the 
experiences of others, without, in any way, seriously impair- 
ing this individual character of their schools. If we sum 
up the most desirable features of the various state provi- 
sions regarding high schools into an ideal scheme of legal 
enactments governing secondary schools, we shall have 
some such formulation as the following : — 

I. The high school grades, for all educational purposes, 



LEGAL STATUS OF HIGH SCHOOLS 47 

shall be a component part of the public school system of 
every community in which schools of such grade can be 
maintained. 

2. These grades, as well as the elementary grades, shall 
be absolutely free to all children qualified by age and train- 
ing to partake of their benefits. This last should be con- 
strued, however, as being within due limitations as to the 
distribution of numbers ; such, for example, as to make it 
possible to relieve a congested condition in a school of any 
particular community as a result of an unusual or excessive 
number of outside pupils seeking admission to it. 

3. The cost of maintaining high school grades in a 
given community shall be distributed among a larger num- 
ber, either by means of state or national aid, by means 
of a county high school fund, or by establishing a larger 
district for high school purposes. One of the latter two 
plans should have the preference because they admit of 
more direct participation on the part of those most inter- 
ested. In connection with the larger high school district 
some scheme should be devised for a more equitable ad- 
justment of the cost of education to those who live far 
from the school. This is accomplished in some states by 
providing transportation. 

4. High school teachers shall be required to give satis- 
factory evidence of special qualification for high school 
work both by reason of a high grade of scholarship and of 
professional training. 

5. In order to meet present conditions some elementary 
instruction in principles and methods of teaching shall be 
provided for in fully organized high schools. 

Note. For summary of laws see " Table showing Principal Legal 
Enactments affecting High Schools by States," Appendix L 



48 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. Origin of the type of early colonial school and its influence on the 
development of secondary education in the United States. 

2. A study of the history and growth of the academic schools of 
New York. 

3. A complete study of the Minnesota, California, and Vermont sys- 
tems of secondary education. 

4. A study of the township high school as it has developed in dif- 
ferent states. 

5. A study of important legal decisions affecting high schools. 

6. A further study of state aid to high schools. 

7. An investigation of the extent to which high schools are strictly 
free. 

8. An investigation of the results where special certification of high 
school teachers is required. 

References. — " Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Gov- 
ernments," Clews. Late editions of the school laws and school reports of the various 
states. See also School Review, 12 : 267 ; 14 : 739, and Education, 24 : 485. " Edu- 
cational Legislation in 1905," H. J. Rogers, Educational Review, 33 : 46-58 ; " State 
School Systems : Legislation and Judicial Decisions relating to Public Education, 
Oct. I, 1904, to Oct. I, 1906," E. C. Elliott, in Bulletin No. 3, 1906, Bureau of 
Education ; " New England Educational Policy," W. Scott, N. E. Magazine, n.s., 
20:443. 



CHAPTER III 

PLACE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IN OUR SYSTEM 
OF EDUCATION » 

In the discussions of the preceding chapters the term 
" secondary " has been applied aUke to schools of various 
countries. This is not intended to imply that the groups 
included are the same in all cases. 

I. Secondary Schools Compared and Defined 

In Germany, for instance, the Volkschulen^ which are 
coeducational schools of the masses, carry the pupils to 
the age of fourteen. Those destined to enter the boys* 
Gymnasmm receive their preparation in the Vorschulen^ 
entering the secondary schools at nine years and continuing 
there to the age of eighteen. The Mddchenschulen take 
the girls through a course of nine years, beginning at six. 
At present most of the schools of the grade of the Gymna- 
sium or Realschule open to girls are private schools or 
schools almost entirely under city patronage. In Prussia, 
for instance, while there are 272 boys' higher schools sup- 
ported wholly or in part by the state, there are only four 
girls' schools receiving any state aid. This condition as 
to the higher education of girls in Germany is, however, 
rapidly improving. 

In France the lycie and the communal college are 
organized on a plan similar to the German Gymnasium. 
except that the secondary schools for girls in France are 

49 



50 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of a relatively high order and similar in organization to the 
corresponding schools for boys. In all lines of higher 
education for women the French government is more 
liberal than the German. Several of the leading French 
universities are open to women and present courses 
arranged with special reference to their interests. This 
is particularly true of the universities of Lyons, Grenoble, 
and Paris. Such recognition by the universities naturally 
gives a greater impetus to the secondary education of the 
young women of France. But these, again, are not the 
schools for the masses. The children of the tradespeople 
usually leave the elementary schools of France, not to enter 
the lyc^e^ but to take up the work of the particular trade 
school toward which the family occupation directs them. 

In England, until quite recently, there has been little in 
the way of public education to correspond to our secondary 
schools. At first these schools were "voluntary," and were 
usually denominational schools. Some of the most famous 
secondary schools of the world are in England. Among 
these are Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, Cheltenham, and King's 
College School. But this higher grade of English second- 
ary schools has been rather exclusively for children of the 
upper classes. Secondary training for the masses has 
heretofore been of an inferior character. Under the more 
recent enactments, however, it is apparent that much better 
things are in store for the sons and daughters of the common 
people. 

But even though the English secondary school is poorly 
organized it is much more democratic than the same class 
of schools in France and Germany. On the continent it is 
practically impossible for the children of one social caste 
to find their way into the secondary schools of another 



PLACE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 51 

caste. Thus it comes about that the Gymnasium and lycie 
are schools of the privileged classes, while the trades- 
people are confined to the Volkschulen and various trade 
schools in Germany, and to the elementary and trade 
schools in France. Under the stronger national system 
now going into operation in England the way is being 
opened for children of all classes to rise to the best sec- 
ondary and higher training which the government can 
furnish. 

With us the plan of grouping schools, as almost uni- 
versally adopted, is too well known to need extended men- 
tion here. From five or six to thirteen or fourteen years 
of age the children are kept in the elementary schools. 
For the four succeeding years, or up to seventeen or 
eighteen, their time is devoted to secondary training. 
Where the kindergarten has been estabHshed, however, 
children begin at even an earlier age below the elementary 
grades as given above. 

In recent years considerable discussion has arisen as to 
the real propriety of such a grouping. The present classi- 
fication has probably come to us through our introduction 
of the traditional type of grammar school which developed 
in New England after the pattern of the English grammar 
schools. It is contended, in opposition to this traditional 
classification, that it is not in harmony with the natural 
divisions established by the more marked physical and 
mental changes due to growth from childhood to youth. 
The adolescent period begins somewhat earlier; therefore, 
it is pointed out, the secondary period should begin earlier, 
as it does in Germany. This would bring into our second- 
ary group the two upper grades of the elementary group, 
thus making six years of secondary work, with a possible 
further extension upward. 



52 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

It is doubtless true that such a division would correspond 
more nearly to the line of demarcation between elementary 
and secondary work as psychologically determined; but 
the recognition of this fact is more important than any 
change in the mere outward form of organization of our 
schools. That which concerns us most is the adjustment 
of the program of studies, throughout the entire period of 
elementary and secondary training, to the varying needs 
and possibilities in the development of childhood and youth. 
With us the high school is but a phase of common school 
education. Is it not more important that we preserve this 
conception of the matter in the minds of the people, than 
that we undertake such a reorganization of the schools in 
their outward form as would tend to divorce the two groups ? 
The more apparent becomes the idea of a consecutive 
process in training from elementary to higher grades, the 
more readily will the people come to acquiesce in that 
fuller training which secondary and even higher education 
afford. 

II. Work to be accomplished in the Elementary 

School 

Whatever we may decide as being the proper line of 
demarcation between the two stages of common school 
education as now generally in force, we must agree that 
the work to be accomplished in the secondary group will 
depend largely on what has been done in the elementary 
period of the child's education. In the conference held 
in connection with the investigations of the Committee 
of Ten of the National Education Association in 1892, 
the following points were unanimously agreed upon in 
regard to work to be accomplished below the secondary 
school: — 



PLACE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 53 

1. There should be training to some knowledge of elementary 
mathematics other than arithmetic. 

2. Habits of observing, reflecting, and recording of data should be 
formed in connection with nature study. 

3. The pupils should get an elementary knowledge of mythology 
and of the biographical phases of ancient history as well as of 
American history. * 

4. The training of pupils in Latin and modern language work 
should be begun. 

5. All these subjects should be correlated and associated. 

It is due in part, at least, to the recommendations of this 
committee that we find history and nature study to be 
much more intelligently handled in many of our school 
systems than formerly; that sporadic efforts have been 
made to introduce foreign language work, algebra, and 
concrete geometry into the work of the elementary 
schools; that various interpretations of correlation have 
been tried with varying degrees of success, but with no 
present agreement as to quality or quantity. 

in. Analysis of the Elementary Program 

In spite of the difficulties due to lack of ade.quate train- 
ing of teachers in scholarship and professionally, much 
headway has been made in overcoming the influence of 
tradition which still occasionally insists on prolonged drill 
in the mere arts of the school as the sole function of ele- 
mentary training. The advance made seems to be suf- 
ficient to warrant a somewhat more insistent demand for 
the reconstruction of the elementary program on a broader 
and more philosophical basis. 

Modern pedagogy recognizes the need of training in the 
school arts, but it would not make this so much a matter 
of formal drill as has been done in the past. The educa- 
tional process is conceived of rather as a process of stimu- 



54 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

lation and reaction accompanied by a training in the 
school arts as offering a variety of means of expressing 
the child's reaction to stimulation. The means to stimu- 
lation are seen in nature and in what we may call, in a 
broad sense of the term, history. This would make the 
latter term include not only the written records of man's 
deeds, but also all other expressions of his thoughts and 
feelings ; such as works of art, government, and all social 
and industrial creations. 

These things, with nature, make the child's environ- 
ment, as they have ever made the environment of the race. 
It is the work of education so to conduct the child in rela- 
tion to this environment as to develop facility and full- 
ness in giving expression to his own thoughts and feelings, 
or of inhibiting them in such a manner as may enable him 
finally to represent in his own life and conduct the highest 
attainments of the race. 

In elementary education, then, we have come to under- 
stand that the art of reading, most fundamental of all, is 
taught the child in order to open to him the stores of re- 
corded history, including, of course, the literature of his 
mother tongue. At the same time he is acquiring a knowl- 
edge and use of words which will aid him in recording his 
own observations or expressing his own thoughts and feel- 
ings as a result of his contact with nature and the works 
of man. 

The art of writing is very closely associated with the art 
of reading, and is taught in order to give facility in this 
form of recording and expressing ideas. Similarly, the 
arts of drawing and of constructing are taught in order to 
widen the individual's range of possibilities in expressing 
or recording experiences. Likewise in the teaching of 
arithmetic we are primarily placing at the disposal of the 



PLACE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 55 

child an added instrumentality of expression which has to 
do with certain relations of matter or of space, and of 
man's position in them. 

The real field for the child's experience is found in 
nature and in history, the latter including arts and insti- 
tutions. In this modern conception of education we are 
no longer satisfied to drill in the school arts with the hope 
that there may be something for the child to express when 
he is grown up. We now give him a language, skill of 
hand, the art of computing, as the means by which he 
daily expresses himself or records his observations with 
regard to the earth, the sun and stars, the air, plants, ani- 
mals, woodland or stream, machines, buildings, customs, the 
organized community life, individual and social relations 
and responsibilities. The art perfects itself in constant 
use, not merely imposed as drill work, but as furnishing 
the means to desired ends in expression, and in interpre- 
tation of the recorded experiences of others. 

In this way the elementary school will readily turn over 
to the secondary stage of education a group of children 
who have been pretty thoroughly perfected in the use of 
the mother tongue within the range of their experience, 
and who have also learned to record, classify, and generalize 
as a result of their contact with nature, with their fellows, 
and with institutions. The things we have here enumer- 
ated the secondary school has a right to expect as a result 
of the training of the elementary school within the limits 
of the physical and mental capacity of children of that age. 

Whether or not the elementary school may go even far- 
ther and undertake elementary training in foreign language, 
algebra, and geometry is a matter apparently not yet 
demonstrated to the satisfaction of many. Examples are 
not wanting, however, of schools where it has been satis- 



56 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

factorily shown after a number of years' trial, that there is 
time enough in the elementary period, over and above 
what is required for the fundamental things in the program 
as above enumerated, to provide for the teaching of the 
extra language and mathematics. The chief requisite to 
the success of this arrangement is properly trained 
teachers. 

On the other hand there are some things now under- 
taken in the elementary schools which might much better 
be done in the high school. Grammar as the science of 
language, and arithmetic as the science of numbers or as 
technically applied in business, especially belong to this 
class of subjects. Some of the work done under the name 
of geography also belongs more properly with the physical 
or commercial geography work of more advanced high 
school grades. When we put with the above the fact that 
the best time to acquire the rudiments of a foreign lan- 
guage is in early youth, that the elements of algebra are 
but universal terms for the expression of arithmetical oper- 
ations, and that simple geometrical conceptions are neces- 
sary in much of the manual arts work of the elementary 
school, it seems likely that the plans outlined by the Com- 
mittee of Ten may yet materialize much more fully than is 
true of them at present. 

IV. The Forward Look 

As to the forward look after secondary training there are 
two features to be considered. Out of the completed 
course of the high school there come two groups. The 
larger of these, at present, is the group of those who go 
directly into the work of life. Those of the smaller group 
enter the higher institutions for further preparation. The 
tendency now is for the second group to approach the 



PLACE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 57 

first in size, and there can be little doubt but that this 
tendency will continue for some time to come. 

In considering the relation of secondary school training 
to the immediate future of the youth, it is but natural that 
we put the stress on the interests of the majority if there 
is a difference in the kind of training demanded. That 
such a difference has existed in the past is evident from 
our historical study of secondary schools in Chapter L 
We have also seen that the interests of the smaller group 
have often been dominant in determining the content of 
the program. 

The tendency to-day, however, is quite the other way. 
This fact the higher institutions readily recognize. It is 
this change of tendency, together with the widening scope 
of university training, a fact doubtless due to the same 
general cause, that has brought about our present elective 
system in high schools. Everywhere the doctrine is to 
adapt the program of studies to the needs of the com- 
munity life first of all, and to fitting for efficient service in 
that life. 

As a result we find a marked inclination among college 
and secondary men to seek for a common ground of rela- 
tionship. It is believed that the interests of the two 
groups may be so harmonized that the best preparation 
for life will mean, to the majority at least, preparation also 
for some line of college or university training. 

Of course there will always be a residuum of those 
who, by reason of certain physical or mental limitations, 
either personal or external, will never be able to utilize 
any possible opportunity for .such advanced training. It 
is concerning the education to be provided for this class 
in particular that there exists the most doubt at the pres- 
ent time. There are many who argue strongly for the 



58 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

trade school and the continuation school as the only 
feasible means by which such a group of youths can be 
reached. Even here, however, it may yet be found that 
the elective system will serve, and that a unified system 
of secondary training shall persist rather than a complete 
segregation into trade schools and schools for a broad 
cultural training. There is always the possibility of 
fostering a tendency to social caste that must be taken 
into account in connection with any such proposed scheme 
of dividing the field of secondary education. A fuller 
discussion of this phase of the question will be found in a 
later chapter. 

V. Training of Teachers in High Schools 

Another way in which our high schools are at present 
related to the rest of our system is in the training of 
teachers for the elementary schools. As things now are, 
a large proportion of elementary teachers have no other 
training than that of a high school. The question which 
presents itself is : Shall the high schools make special 
provision for such training ? There seem to be many who 
believe that the high schools are a proper place for the 
training of teachers. As a matter of fact, the competition 
of the stronger high schools with normal schools in most 
of the states has greatly affected attendance upon these 
professional institutions. If this is true, should the high 
schools not offer something in the nature of the profes- 
sional training of the normal schools } 

Those who believe in the competent professional train- 
ing of teachers feel that this training should come after 
a good high school training rather than as part of it. 
They point out that a high school course is all too brief a 
preparation in scholarship on the part of those who are 



PLACE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 59 

to teach the young. To undertake to introduce into the 
high school any such professional training would weaken 
the standard of scholarship, at the same time that it will 
do but little good in a professional way as compared with 
the work of more mature people in a later professional 
training. 

Probably it is true, however, that until higher standards 
as to professional training are more popular, it is best that 
some effort be made by well-organized high schools to give 
a little insight into the problems of instruction and the 
general management of a school. 

New York has long made use of the academy as a 
school for the training of elementary teachers and the 
state has subsidized these schools for that purpose. 
Several of the Western states have adopted this plan 
temporarily as a means of meeting the demand for pro- 
fessionally trained teachers under more rigid certification 
laws. Among these are Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Min- 
nesota. 

We shall leave to a later chapter (XIII) a somewhat 
fuller discussion of the high school as a preparatory school 
than would be consistent with the scope of this particular 
theme. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1 . Recent development in English secondary education. 

2. German and French secondary education of girls. 

3. An examination of the conditions and arguments in favor of a six- 
year secondary group. 

4. An investigation of movements now tending toward the accept- 
ance, by colleges and universities, of the training of high schools given 
without regard to college preparation. 

5. A study of the present relation of high schools to the preparation 
of teachers for the elementary schools. 



6o HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

References. — See references to European schools under Chapter I. " London 
Education," Witt ; " Higher Education of Women in Europe," Helene Lange ; 
" Report of the Committee of Ten " ; " Principles of General Method," C. A. 
McMurry; "The Modern School," Paul H. Hanus; "The Educative Process," 
Bagley ; " A Seven-year Course for Elementary Schools and a Five-year Course 
for Secondary Schools," Greenwood, Education, 27 : 550-555. 



CHAPTER IV 

GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 

I. Present Conditions in Regard to School 
Sanitation 

At the present time the conditions existing in the United 
States are such as to call for increased attention to the 
material surroundings and equipment of schools on the 
part of principals, superintendents, and all school officials. 
According to data compiled in 1893,^ only three or four of 
the states make any reasonable provisions for conditions 
of safety and sanitation for school buildings and grounds. 
Among these Massachusetts may fairly be said to lead. 
At the date above given one third of the states took 
some precaution against fire. Some great disasters since 
have caused a decided increase in this number. One 
fourth of the states guarded against contagion ; one sixth 
required suitable sanitaries, although often the specifica- 
tions were vague; two, Massachusetts and Connecticut, 
insisted on proper ventilation ; while only one, and that 
Kentucky, prescribed the space to be allotted each pupil, 
and made some provision in regard to proper lighting 
and adjustable seats. But little advance, outside of the 
large cities, has since been made. For this reason, a dis- 
cussion of these matters, at least in a general way, is 
quite essential to a fair treatment of any form of school 

1 " Sanitary Legislation Respecting Schools," Commissioner of Education Report, 1893- 
1894, pp. 1301-1349. 

6x 



62 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

administration. It is unfortunate, however, that there are 
not at hand some more recent facts showing public senti- 
ment in regard to the hygienic conditions of schools. The 
investigations recently made by the New York Committee 
on the Physical Welfare of School Children,^ together with 
the very practical recommendations made by the commit- 
tee are of interest in this connection. The reports of the 
recent International Congress on School Hygiene as re- 
ported in Nature^ Vol. 'j6y and also in Nineteenth Century, 
Vol. 62, while of interest chiefly with reference to the 
European situation, are still of some value as noting the 
present-day sentiment, and the trend of the progress that 
is being made. 

II. The School Site 

In making provision for the proper home of a high 
school or other secondary institution the primary considera- 
tion is the school site. In determining a location, it very 
frequently happens that the chief consideration is to 
find a point near the center of the population which is to 
be tributary to this particular building. While a location 
that is readily and about equally accessible from all points 
in a given school district is a very important matter, yet it 
is not so vitally important as to be allowed to outweigh all 
other considerations. 

The general surroundings need also to be taken into 
account, as well as the approaches to the school. All 
authorities on the subject agree that a slightly elevated 
ground, with a natural rather than a made soil, free from 
organic impurities, and well drained, is most desirable. 
Modern tendencies of secondary education also call for 
large grounds, with room for athletic sports and a school 

1 World's Work, 15 : 9504-9505. 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 63 

garden, as well as shade trees, grass, shrubs, and flowers. 
Where conditions require it, however, school garden and 
athletic grounds may be detached from the school site 
proper without serious loss in effectiveness. 

Another point emphasized by all is that the neighbor- 
hood of the building should be free from noisy, dirty, or 
ill-smelling industries. High buildings should not stand so 
near as to cut off light and air nor echo the sounds of the 
street back to the class rooms. Care should be taken that 
pupils be not required to pass dangerous crossings, or 
places of resort for immoral or boisterous classes of people. 
The building should be set well back in the grounds, or at 
least so as to permit the best possible arrangement of the 
remaining space in adapting it to its proper uses ; and as 
far as may be practicable it should be protected from cold 
winds. 

III. The Building as a Whole 

The building itself should be the very best which the 
financial ability of the district will permit. The following 
description of an ideal house given by Dr. William H. 
Burnham in World's Worky 2 : %66-Zyiy and also quoted 
in the " Report of the Committee on School Hygiene of 
the Worcester Public Educational Association," in Peda- 
gogical Seminary y 13:230-244, will serve to get before 
us the chief points to be considered in planning a build- 
ing : " The building is entirely of masonry and steel con- 
struction, built of the best glazed brick and practically 
fireproof. It is two stories high and built in the form 
of the letter H. 

" Heating and ventilation are by a combination of the so- 
called plenum and exhaust systems. Two hundred and 
fifty cubic feet of air space is provided for each pupil and 



64 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

35 cubic feet of fresh air suitably warmed and moistened 
is supplied each pupil per minute. Distribution of the 
warm air and ventilation is insured by exhaust fans 
placed near the top of ventilating shafts, and foul air is 
drawn from each apartment. The arrangement of the 
warm-air registers and the foul-air outlets in each room is 
made with regard to the best distribution of the fresh air ; 
in the recitation rooms the inlets being placed eight feet 
above the floor, usually on an interior wall, and the outlets 
near the floor on the same side. The main horizontal duct 
for warm air extends under the whole of the assembly 
room, and fresh air is introduced by a register under each 
seat, while the outlets are at the top of the room. 

" In the basement, besides the heating and ventilating 
apparatus, are storerooms, lunch room, playrooms, gym- 
nasium, shower baths, toilet rooms, and ventilated lockers 
for the wraps of each pupil. The plumbing is all open ; 
the sanitaries of the best modern style and ventilated 
through a special exhaust duct. The light in the class 
rooms comes from the left, or from the left and rear, and 
is regulated by curtains of neutral gray green running up 
from the bottom as well as letting down from the top. The 
ratio of window surface to floor surface is i to 4. All the 
exit doors open outward. 

** Especially noteworthy are the arrangements for clean- 
liness. The fresh air introduced to the heating apparatus 
is filtered through a screen of cheese cloth so that dust 
and other impurities are removed before it enters the fan 
room. The schoolrooms are really cleaned every day. 
There is no sweeping or dry dusting. The hardwood 
floors are cleaned every night by a carpet brush dipped 
in a special oil preparation. The oil makes the dust 
adhere to the brush, and in this way it is not stirred up, 



\ / 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 65 

but removed from the room, and the floor is improved each 
time it is cleaned so that once a week it can be washed 
thoroughly without injury. Or the simpler and more 
practical method of using a small amount of kerosene oil 
with a so-called * dustless brush ' is adopted. At intervals 
the rooms are disinfected. The furniture is wiped off with 
a moist cloth. The chalk dust is reduced to a minimum 
by the use of the best crayons and by cleaning the black- 
boards, and the little dust made is caught in removable 
troughs. Thus each morning the children come into a 
schoolroom actually clean. There are no free text-books 
used promiscuously, no slates, and no drinking cups ; but 
on each floor is a drinking fountain where the children can 
drink from a continuous stream of water without the need 
of cups. Wire matting at the doors, individual lockers for 
wraps, and the facilities for bathing do much to insure 
clean clothing and clean children.'* 

We are told by Dr. Burnham that each of the points 
mentioned as making up this ideal structure is to be found 
actually exemplified in some building now in use, although 
no one building may be said to embody them all. 

Of course it is not to be expected that all these 
conditions will be attained, even imperfectly, in very 
many buildings ; but they indicate the points to be looked 
after in connection with the planning and construction of 
school buildings. The importance of this phase of our 
educational work can hardly be overestimated. The well- 
known relationship of good sanitary and otherwise whole- 
some conditions and surroundings to physical and moral 
healthfulness is sufficient reason to justify such outlay of 
public funds as may be necessary in order to minimize, to 
the greatest possible extent, any unhealthful tendency. To 
do this there must be expert supervision and inspection with 



66 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

authority to enforce reasonable compliance with necessary 
standards. In this respect, as we have seen, the United 
States has done but little as yet. Germany, France, and 
Switzerland are considerably in advance of us. During 
the Russo-Japanese war the attention of the world was 
forcibly attracted to the important bearing which proper 
sanitary engineering has on the success of an army in the 
field. How much more must it be true that in a great 
and prosperous nation the real perpetuation of greatness 
is to depend upon the conditions with regard to sanitation 
and moral atmosphere under which the education of our 
youth is to be conducted. 

IV. Training of Supervisors in Architecture and 
Sanitation 

Evidently this work should begin with the proper 
training of those whose business it is to supervise the 
work of our schools. As yet scarcely anything has been 
done by our normal schools and colleges along this line. 
One good course, at least, should be offered in every 
university having a department or school of education 
which should deal with the location and proper sanitary 
and artistic construction of school buildings. 

Such a course, designed for high school principals or 
for superintendents having under their care high schools 
as a part of the school system, should cover such consid- 
erations as are suggested in Dr. Burnham's description. 
These considerations we may now discuss more in detail. 

First of all is the question of building materials. It is 
generally agreed among experts that school buildings 
should be as nearly fireproof as possible, hence masonry 
and steel are considered ideal materials. The educational 
officer will need to know definitely what is to enter into 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 67 

the building plan both as to materials and as to floor space. 
In the interests of safety he will insist on ample and well- 
lighted corridors ; two stairways at opposite ends of the 
corridors and of ample width, with landings halfway up, 
all to be constructed of metal or at least of oak ; no closets 
under stairways to become receptacles for combustible 
matter ; in case a third story is necessary, two stairways 
all the way up, and a fire escape at an intermediate point, 
and readily accessible from the second and third floors. In 
the interests of good sanitation he will want to be sure 
of good drainage; of the most approved construction of 
closets, lavatories, and baths, with a separate system of 
ventilation for closets; of a system of heating and venti- 
lating which will insure plenty of pure air properly tem- 
pered and of the right degree of humidity ; of lighting 
facilities adequate for gloomy days and for rooms in all 
parts of the building which are to be used for study or 
recitation and laboratory work ; of ventilated metal lockers 
to be placed in basement rooms provided with means of 
heating in order to dry wet clothing, the latter arrangement 
including floor grates or heated platforms where wet shoes 
and skirts may be dried ; of the proper means for removing 
dust, cleansing floors, and disinfecting. He will see that 
there are emergency or retiring rooms for the use of pupils 
or teachers who are ill ; and in districts where distances 
make it desirable, he will be able to see that proper lunch 
facilities are provided and operated in a strictly hygienic 
manner. In the interests of physical training he should 
know what is best in athletics, the necessary arrangement 
of grounds, the equipment of a gymnasium and the best 
kind of training in it, the advantages and proper use of 
the swimming pool if such a thing is practicable. Of 
course where a physical director is employed, it will be 



68 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

necessary only that the educational officer know in a broad, 
general way what things are best or practicable. For 
details he may well depend upon the director to make 
recommendations. This also may be said of matters of 
sanitation where a competent engineer is employed by the 
school. The trouble is that no such supervising officer is 
now available anywhere outside of a few large cities. 
i The principal or superintendent should know how to 
dispose the different class rooms, laboratories, studios, and 
workshops in order to secure the best results as to con- 
venience, lighting, and general comfort. He should know, 
for instance, that direct sunlight is desirable in physical 
and biological laboratories ; that a drawing studio needs a 
north light ; that the shop work should not interfere with 
class-room exercises. He will know how best to locate 
the offices of principal and teachers; the storerooms for 
school supplies, and those for housekeeping utensils and 
supplies ; the provisions to be made for reference libraries ; 
the arrangement of lecture rooms and work rooms in con- 
nection with the science laboratories. One of the consid- 
erations which is of vital importance to a high school is 
the problem of an assembly hall and study rooms. In the 
. smaller centers it is found desirable to combine these two 
■ functions in the same room. It frequently happens in do- 
ing so, however, that not enough space is allowed for this 
purpose, to say nothing about allowing for the future 
growth of the high school. Felix Clay ^ estimates that in 
planning the assembly hall at least 6 to 8 sq. ft. of floor 
space per pupil should be provided, the number decreasing 
with the increase in size of the high school. This is cer- 
tainly a low estimate. Twelve to fifteen square feet would 
seem more nearly correct, especially where one room serves 

1 " Modern School Buildings," pp. 44-47. 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 69 

for both assembly hall and study room. It is hardly nec- 
essary to repeat that in this case the matter of proper 
lighting should be very carefully considered. 

In the larger schools it is found practicable to arrange 
for study rooms on the different floors, so as to free the 
assembly hall, thus leaving it solely for school assemblies, 
with lighting, seating, and staging adjusted to this pur- 
pose ; and also to make it possible to avoid too much stair 
climbing by pupils. The separate study room has other 
advantages. It permits of a better lighting scheme. It 
also makes possible such a distribution of classes for study 
purposes as to facilitate the better distribution of refer- 
ence books, as well as the adjustment of the furniture, 
such as seating, tables, etc., to the work of particular 
groups. In some high schools the study hall scheme in- 
volves the seating of classes by departments, and the 
presence of one or more teachers of the particular de- 
partment seated in a room in order to direct the work of 
preparation of the pupils more intelligently. 

In other schools, where it is not practicable to have both 
an assembly hall and a gymnasium, the same room may 
be used for both, the seating in such a case being with 
light, folding chairs which may be quickly stacked when 
the room is required for physical training. 

Another method of disposing of the gymnasium exer- 
cises is to place the apparatus in the corridors and to use 
these for exercise. This is readily practicable where the 
cloakroom lockers are put in the basement. However, 
such an arrangement detracts from the artistic possibilities 
of the corridors and should only be used as an urgent 
necessity. 

Along with lavatories, cloakrooms, and other conven- 
iences, the supervisor will not forget, if he is well trained, 



70 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the need of providing a bicycle run, and a room and work- 
shop for the engineer or janitor. He will understand 
also the best system of signals for regulating the move- 
ments of classes, including the merits of a self-winding 
program clock. 

In case of buildings unfavorably located or imperfectly 
constructed it will be well for him to know the merits of 
factory-ribbed glass or luxfer prisms in securing the de- 
sired distribution of light ; to recognize the desirability of 
so adjusting the distribution of class rooms as to put on 
the side nearest a noisy street the kinds of work least 
likely to be disturbed, such as manual work in art room 
or laboratory ; to appreciate the advantages of holophane 
globes where electric or gas lights must be employed to 
reenforce the insufficient sunlight on gloomy days or for 
the night school; to be able to improvise means of im- 
parting added moisture to air that is overdry. 

Evidently there is enough material here for a good solid 
course in schoolhouse construction and sanitation. True, 
it may properly be said that this is the work of a special- 
ist and should not be added to the duties of the school 
supervisor ; but as matters are now adjusted, and as they 
are likely to remain for a long time in most school dis- 
tricts, no such additional expert supervision of school 
buildings will be provided. Meantime a matter which so 
deeply concerns the safety, healthfulness, and economic 
training of youth can hardly be intrusted to the unskilled 
management of educational boards without at least sug- 
gestive direction by one who has given some intelligent 
thought to the problems involved. 

In any case it is desirable that the principal of a large 
school, or the supervisor of a group of schools, should 
possess a reasonable fund of reliable knowledge of these 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 71 

matters. In the smaller high school centers, of course, it is 
sometimes necessary to house all the schools under one 
roof. In such cases difficult problems may present them- 
selves, owing to the absence of sewers, gas, etc. Hence, 
there will be all the more care needed in selecting a proper 
school site, and also in providing sanitaries that will not 
belie the name. It is perhaps in such cases that there will 
be most need of some knowledge on the part of the princi- 
pal or superintendent of the principles involved in building 
sanitary and serviceable school buildings. 

V. Facts to be Impressed 

Some of the facts in regard to high school buildings 
which should be impressed upon the public mind are : — 

1 . That the building should be planned for the specific work of the 
school which is to use it. 

2. That wherever practicable a separate building should be assigned 
to the use of the high school, or at least to the high school and gram- 
mar grades. 

3. That a sanitarily heated and ventilated building is a matter of 
real economy. 

4. That the system of ventilation should furnish at least 30 cu. ft. of 
fresh air per minute to each pupil in the school. 

5. That the average humidity of the atmosphere should not go 
below 50 per cent. 

6. That light should be introduced chiefly from the left side, which 
should be the longer side, with possibly some from behind the pupils, 
as they are seated in the schoolroom. 

7. That the transparent glass surface should be one fourth the floor 
surface of the room to be lighted, and that the darkest part of a room 
where reading or studying is done should receive an illumination of not 
less than 50 candle meters. 

8. That with a proper degree of humidity an even temperature of 
68° to 70° should be maintained. 

9. That floating dust in a schoolroom is one of the chief means of 
distributing harmful bacteria. 



72 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

It is a good thing also for those who have the manage- 
ment of school affairs to know that where the heating is 
by steam it is a comparatively simple matter to provide the 
school building with power for use in connection with the 
shops or even for the production of lights for the school. 

VI. Esthetic Considerations 

Another important matter which enters into the consid- 
eration here is the relationship of a school building to the 
aesthetic training of a community. This has reference 
both to the architectural effect of the exterior and to inte- 
rior finish and decoration. We may all agree that it is 
desirable to have a building possess a sort of individuality, 
even to the extent of reflecting its purpose ; but there is a 
growing feeling that we have had enough of that general 
institutional type of architecture which has long been con- 
sidered the proper thing in buildings of a large, general 
class to which schoolhouses have been assumed to belong. 
Yet this modifying contingency occurs in the case of school 
architecture : Educational work is in such a state of flux 
and evolution as to make uncertain what type of build- 
ing may be needed twenty or twenty-five years hence. 
It is evidently not desirable, therefore, that buildings in- 
tended to outlast the century should be erected. For this 
reason, perhaps, a rather severe type may well be adhered 
to externally, the chief considerations being sufficient sta- 
bility for present purposes, and the maximum of safety. 
Expensive cupolas and towers, for instance, may well be 
dispensed with along with the ponderous school bell of the 
past. However, the architect may still easily introduce 
some elements of ornamentation in connection with en- 
trances, windows, cornices, or other external features. 

It is the interior of the building, however, which offers 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 73 

most in the way of decorative effort. The stairways, 
corridors, and assembly room, as well as the various class 
rooms, offer ample opportunity for the presentation of 
artistic effects. From the tinting or decorating of the 
walls and ceilings, the finishing of the wood casings, to the 
hanging of pictures and the placing of statuary, strength, 
beauty, and refinement of taste may combine in such a 
manner as to add greatly to the wholesome influence of the 
school building, not only upon the pupils but upon the 
community at large. These also are things which some one 
who has to do with the fitting up of the school should 
understand and insist upon to the extent of the ability of 
the district to provide. 

In the matter of class rooms, for instance, undoubtedly 
the scheme which gives to each room a certain individual- 
ity should prevail. The psychological effect of such a 
change, as classes pass from room to room, and the advan- 
tages of it over a general monotony of color and effect is 
readily appreciable even to the casual observer. Nor 
should good hygienic effect as to the lighting of rooms be 
forgotten when choosing tints. If it is practicable to give 
the pupils a part in this work of planning interior deco- 
rations, or even of providing them, the advantage to the 
life of the school and community will be much greater still. 

VII. Furnishing and equipping a High School 

The furnishing and equipping of a high school building 
is in itself a complex undertaking. Here the principal 
may well rely upon the head teachers of the various 
departments for suggestions, if not for complete recom- 
mendations, for their respective departments. It is not 
within the scope of a single chapter on this subject to go 
into the details of such furnishing and equipment, but 



74 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

rather to lay down the general lines and principles on 
which it is to be done. 

As in planning the building, so the furnishings for each 
room should be determined by the use that is to be made 
of it. Where school desks are used they should be, prefer- 
ably, the adjustable desks; for there is no regulation size 
of school desks that is suitable for all the pupils of high 
school age. As well expect that a suit of ready-made 
number ten knickerbockers would fit any boy ten years of 
age. Some of the class rooms will be better adapted to 
their use if seated with chairs equipped with writing tablets ; 
others will need tables and common chairs ; and others still 
would better be seated with desks. In the case of labora- 
tories, studio, and business rooms, specially adapted fur- 
niture will be called for. In all these particulars it will be 
worth while to examine carefully into the different types of 
furnishings before the contracts are made ; and in every 
case the best-constructed furniture as to materials and 
finish will be found most economical as well as most satis- 
factory. 

In smaller high schools one room will have to serve for 
all laboratory and lecture work. This room should be 
fitted with a teacher's demonstration table, supplied with 
gas, water, and electricity where these are available. The 
room should contain, besides, one good sink, tables enough 
for the experimental work of the pupils, a work bench with 
a kit of the more common tools for working in wood, an 
assortment of files, a pair of good pliers, and a small iron 
vise and anvil. There should be cases with good close- 
fitting doors for storing apparatus. An aquarium will add 
greatly to the interest in biology work. Common chairs 
may be used for seating. Besides the usual apparatus, 
which should be selected chiefly for individual work by 



GROUNDS, BUILDINGS, AND EQUIPMENT 75 

the pupils, the room should have, if possible, a stereopti- 
con and screen with lens attachments for microscopic work. 
In fact, it is very desirable where practicable to have proper 
stands provided for the use of the lantern in all the leading 
departments of the high school and in the assembly room. 
In the larger high schools a very economic arrangement 
of laboratory and lecture rooms is to put them in suites for 
the physical and biological sciences and the geography 
work, respectively. In this case a very satisfactory ar- 
rangement for the physical science suite is a tandem effect, 
with the lecture room between the two laboratories, store- 
rooms opening from each laboratory, a workroom opening 
from the physical laboratory. In the storeroom connected 
with the chemical laboratory it may be found desirable to 
construct a fire-proof closet for the safe keeping of such 
chemical supplies as may be Uable to cause combustion. 
The furnishings, such as tables, lockers, baths, gas, and 
electricity, should be such as are found in the best schools 
equipped especially for high school work. 

In the drawing studio should be properly constructed 
desks and adjustable tables. An adjacent storeroom 
should contain such materials, models, etc., as may be 
supplied. Lockers should also be provided for the mate- 
rials and instruments of individual pupils. 

For library purposes it will probably be found best in a 
large high school to have a central library room with full 
cataloguing facilities, and bookshelves distributed through 
the various class rooms or study rooms where such books 
as are needed for reference in particular departments may 
be sent out properly recorded from the central library 
room. Reading tables for newspapers and magazines 
may be either in the central library room or the study 
rooms, as convenience may indicate. 



76 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

For domestic arts, manual training, and other constructive 
work, and for physical training, it will be found desirable 
to fit up rooms or suites, as the case may be, equipped 
with the most approved furnishings for such departments 
of work, and provided with storage room for supplies. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. An investigation of English, German, and French secondary 
school architecture. 

2. A study of the high school buildings of New York, Boston, 
Chicago, or St. Louis. 

3. Sanitary inspection of schools in Germany, in Switzerland, and 
in Austria-Hungary. 

4. A study of heating and ventilating systems. 

5. A study of the school lunch room in the United States. 

6. The school garden as a feature in secondary education. 

7. Grounds for recreation and sports of high school students. 

8. Detailed study of equipment for manual training, for drawing, 
for domestic science. 

References. — "Modem School Buildings" (English), Felix Clay; "School 
Architecture," E. M. Wheelwright ; "The Schoolhouse," Moore; "School Hy- 
giene," Shaw; "Sanitary Legislation respecting Schools," Commissioner of Edu- 
cation's Report, 1893-1894, pp. 1301-1349 ; " The Ideal Schoolhouse," William H. 
Burnham, World's Work, 2:866-871; "Report of Committee on School Hygiene 
of the Worcester Public Educational Association," Ped. Sent., 13:230-244; "The 
Essentials of School Building," American Architect, 80: 28; "Medical Inspection 
of Schools," Ped. Sem., 7 : 70. See also World's Work, 15 : 9504-9505 ; "A Practical 
Plan for Medical Inspection of School Children " ; also articles on " School Hygiene " 
in Nature, 70 : 349-350, and Nineteenth Century, 62 : 388-394 ; " Labor and Child- 
hood," Margaret McMillan; "Sacrifice of the Eyes of School Children," Scott, 
Pop. Sci. Mo., 71 : 303-312 ; Boston School Committee : " Report of Committee of 
Oculists and Electricians on the Artificial Lighting and Color Schemes of School 
Buildings," Boston School Doc, No. 14, 1907 ; " Two Recent High Schools," 
Architects' and Builders' Magazine, n.s., 8 : 251-265. 



CHAPTER V 

TEXT-BOOKS AND OTHER SUPPLIES FOR THE USE OF 

PUPILS 

It is the purpose of this chapter to consider such sup- 
plies, along with text-books, as pupils are usually expected 
to have for their own more or less constant use as individ- 
uals. The text-book is the most important item in this 
list. Other things are notebooks, pens and pencils, draw- 
ing instruments and materials. Text-books are almost 
purely a school device. They represent the formal ar- 
rangement, each according to some particular mode or 
theory of presentation, of the materials of various subjects 
taught in the schools in such a way as to include only 
what is thought to be essential to a given stage of educa- 
tional progression. Their general purpose is supposed to 
be to furnish a ready-to-hand organization of this material 
as a means of saving time to the teacher as well as to the 
pupil. 

I. Growth of the Text-book Idea 

Text-books have grown out of the practice, in the earlier 
history of teaching, of assuming it to be a function of the 
teacher thus to sort out, prepare, and present in some 
organized form the subject-matter of education. It seems 
to be one of the first impulses of a teacher who hits upon 
some new idea concerning the presentation of his subject 
to produce a new text organized around this idea. As a 
result there are almost numberless texts for most of the 

77 



78 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

subjects now. taught in the common schools. Some of 
these texts attract attention because of the selection of 
subject-matter which they present. Others are conspicu- 
ous because they emphasize a special method of teaching. 
Others still base their appeal for public favor solely upon 
the mere mechanism of arrangement and perfection of 
make. In this latter case such things as marginal indexes, 
convenient reference indexes, typographical superiority, 
illustrations, and the quality of stock and binding are 
emphasized. 

II. Who prepare our Texts.? 

Until recently most of our high school texts have been 
prepared by college men. As a result these texts have re- 
flected strongly the matter and method of the college. It 
is for this reason, probably, more than for any other cause, 
that the charge of attempting to dominate the teaching 
methods of the high schools has been directed against the 
colleges and universities. When we put with this the fact 
that college graduates frequently become the high school 
teachers who are to use these books, it is not at all strange 
that the influence of the college upon the methods of high 
school instruction is somewhat marked. Of course this is 
an accident due to conditions rather than an intentional 
and concerted action by the colleges and universities. 
These institutions are as ready as any others to set matters 
right when they become aware of the situation. The fact 
still remains, however, and may well be considered as one 
of the important problems connected with the text-book 
question. 

Recently high school and normal school instructors have 
taken up the task of preparing high school texts, with good 
results in many cases. The tendency in the case of high 



SUPPLIES FOR THE USE OF PUPILS 79 

school men is that they take too limited a view of the sub- 
ject in their effort to ** write down " for high school pupils. 
With texts coming from normal school men the chief limi- 
tation thus far seems to have been a tendency to over- 
emphasis of method, thus obscuring somewhat the real 
purpose of presentation. 

III. Notebooks and Pens 

Notebooks are coming to be almost on an equality with 
texts as to both necessity and variety. More and more the 
prepared notebook, adapted to a particular subject, with a 
certain ruling or other quality of paper, with outline maps, 
or laboratory directions and experiments, is coming into 
use. 

The amount of writing called for from the pupils and re- 
quired to be in ink has made the fountain pen almost as 
indispensable to the high school student as the text- or 
notebook. 

All these things entail a heavy burden of expense upon 
high school pupils and make it constantly harder for the 
children of the poor to share in the privileges of secondary 
education. For this reason it is well that we give some 
consideration to this very important factor in the wise ad- 
ministration of the high schools of the people. 

IV. Regulation of the Cost of Text-books 

Public sentiment has long since been aroused on the sub- 
ject of text-book and other supplies, and many different 
schemes have been set in motion by legislative enactment 
having for their purpose the lowering of expense to the 
patrons of the schools. This public interest in the matter 
has raised the question as to who should really furnish text- 
books and other pupils' supplies. Some contend that the 



8o HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

idea of free schools carries with it the free provision of all 
things essential to the work of the school. Where the law 
makes school attendance compulsory, the correctness of 
this argument is generally conceded. This does not usually 
affect pupils of high school age, however ; and hence the 
question is not so readily agreed upon where it refers to the 
texts used in the secondary schools. 

Thus far thirty states and the District of Columbia have 
enacted laws providing, in one way or another, for free 
text-books. Of these, nine limit the appUcation of the law 
so as not to affect high schools, leaving twenty-one states 
where free high school texts may be supplied. The twenty- 
one are: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland 
(by progression), West Virginia, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Montana, 
Wyoming, Colorado, Idaho, Washington. Of these the 
following ten states have mandatory laws: Maine, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Nebraska, Wyoming. In 
the other eleven states it is made a matter of local option. 
Where this is true, however, the result generally seems to 
be in favor of free texts. 

Of course there are arguments both for and against free 
texts in high schools. If a pupil owns his texts, he feels 
free to mark them with marginal notes for future refer- 
ence. This is apt to be especially desirable in case of 
texts on literature or history, although the need is not 
so apparent in the case of immature high school pupils 
as with older students. Then, too, there is less danger of 
contagion. Unless books are very carefully disinfected, 
where they are loaned to different students, they may 
readily become the means of transmitting infectious dis- 



SUPPLIES FOR THE USE OF PUPILS 8l 

eases. Personal ownership and the proper care of one's 
belongings are also desirable experiences to be cultivated 
in youth. There is ground for the objection urged, for 
instance, that a child feels a sort of mean dependence in 
any case in accepting books at the hands of the board. 
Thus closely do we associate ownership with the spirit of 
freedom in the individuaL 

On the other hand, books can be furnished at a much 
lower total cost when bought by the district. They can 
be much better preserved and cared for. This is true 
because the teacher has a more clearly recognized right 
and duty in requiring that books be well kept. Usually 
this is accomplished by a system of fines and forfei- 
tures. As to the sanitary consideration above referred 
to, various devices have been constructed which greatly 
simplify the process of disinfecting books. The furnish- 
ing of free texts and supplies makes it easier for the 
children of the poor to get some high school training. It 
is true that these may be provided for in any case; but 
where all receive the books free, there is no feeling of 
shame on the part of indigent children at being singled 
out as objects of charity. When all things are considered, 
it is probably true that the free text-book plan is best, and 
the preference evidently is for the optional form of the law 
rather than the mandatory. In some cases where free 
text-books have been provided, it has led to the adoption 
of a slight modification of the plan in the way of charging 
a small rental, say, 50 cents a semester, for the entire 
supply of books needed by a high school student. The 
moral and economic advantages of such a rental charge 
make it worthy of consideration. Such a nominal fee 
would not stand in the way of any pupil who really wanted 
to go to school, while it would relieve, somewhat, the feel- 



82 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ing of being a recipient of charity, at the same time that it 
would preserve something of the sense of proprietorship. 
On the side of the school it would go far toward paying 
for the up-keep of the supply of books, and would lessen 
the number of individual holdings of texts, a condition 
which might otherwise be a hindrance to needed changes. 

V. Uniformity 

In any case it is evident that the free text-book plan is 
the most popular one in the country to-day. Next to this 
comes the adoption by a state text-book commission or by 
a state board of education of a uniform series for the 
state. Twelve states have provided for such adoption for 
high schools. The number of states having uniform adop- 
tion for elementary schools is still larger. Three states 
provide for uniformity by counties. Some few of the states 
counted in the uniformity list also provide for free texts ; 
but when allowance is made for this, it is easy to see that 
the great majority of all the states and territories have 
sought in one way or another to relieve the public from a 
portion of the burden which comes to those whose occupa- 
tions are such as to require frequent removals from one 
part of a state or county to the other. 

Another argument for uniformity, secured either by large 
adoptions or by a system of free texts selected by a central 
board, is the advantage which such a scheme is believed to 
give in the carrying into effect of state or county courses 
of study, or in conducting state examinations for the stand- 
ardizing of state aid high schools. 

If this whole matter were left to high school teachers, 
however, it is probable that there would be very few who 
would vote for uniformity. The chief contention would 
be that the nature of high school work is such as to call 



SUPPLIES FOR THE USE OF PUPILS S;^ 

for greater freedom in the selection of texts. It would be 
pointed out, for instance, that a course in ancient history 
given in the third or fourth year of the high school might 
require a text more comprehensive in treatment and diffi- 
cult in style than a book for a similar course offered in 
the first year of high school. Or it might be said that a 
half-year's work in zoology or physical geography might 
be accomplished with the use of simpler texts than a full 
year's course. 

Perhaps enough has been said to indicate considerable 
room for difference as between uniformity for elementary 
schools and a uniform series of texts for all high schools. 
Here, again, the free text-book plan comes to the rescue, 
and gets for the public all that uniformity can give with- 
out the disadvantages which uniformity alone is believed 
to impose upon high schools. 

VI. Selection and Adoption of Texts 

Whatever may be the method of furnishing text-books, 
their selection and adoption will always be a matter of 
interest. What may be considered the proper criteria by 
which they are to be selected.'* In the first place, text- 
books are, by the nature of the case, subjected to rather 
hard usa'ge; they should therefore be of good materials 
and thoroughly well bound. They are to be used more or 
less extensively by pupils as sources of information to be , 
read and reread; they should therefore be very clearly 
printed. The marginal and general indexes should be 
carefully made, with a view to indicating definitely to the 
reader the place of treatment of any particular phase of 
the subject. The illustrations, if any, should be clearly 
printed, and should be such as to add something to the 
significance of the book as a whole, as well as to a clearer 



84 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

understanding of the particular thing which is illustrated. 
Last but not least, the subject-matter should be authentic, 
and complete enough for the educational purpose for which 
it is compiled. On this point it is a pretty safe criterion 
that a book on a given subject should be prepared by some 
one whose interest in and knowledge of the subject render 
him competent as an author. 

Generally speaking, a fairly complete text, even though 
too full for thorough treatment in the time which may be 
allotted to the subject, is preferable to one which is bar- 
renly meager on any of the more essential features. All 
texts are made, not for one particular situation, but with 
the idea of their adaptation to many situations. Fre- 
quently pupils will read the fuller text, even though parts 
are necessarily omitted in assignment, and thus get a 
larger view than they might ever do if dependent upon a 
very brief or condensed treatise and upon outside refer- 
ences. It is well, also, that a book should give references 
to other and fuller sources of information where the sub- 
ject is of such a nature as to make their use desirable in 
a more exhaustive study of topics. 

So thoroughly have we given ourselves up to the text- 
book idea in this country that the frequent changing of 
texts in a given subject is almost a mania among teachers. 
Of course there may be cases where conditions would be 
slightly improved by such a change ; but how about the 
possible improvement of the teacher, say nothing of the 
wider outlook which the pupils will get, if their instructors 
should thoroughly adapt the old book to the situation? 
This may be done by rearrangement, substitution, omis- 
sion, or supplementing. Such adaptation often brings far 
better results than even a new text. 

JBut when once a change is to be made, how is it to 



SUPPLIES FOR THE USE OF PUPILS 85 

be accomplished? In a high school where there is any 
semblance of departmental arrangement of work, the first 
recommendation of a text should usually come from the 
teacher of the subject. Reasons for the choice should 
accompany the recommendation. If the choice seems sat- 
isfactory, the principal may transmit it directly to the 
superintendent, and the superintendent to the board of 
education, for approval. Such a review of the teacher's 
recommendation by both principal and superintendent will 
enable them to guard against neglect to consider the more 
general interests involved in a change of text-books, at the 
same time that it is made desirable on account of frequent 
changes in teachers. 

If there is reason why the principal or superintendent 
should question the wisdom of the choice, it seems fitting 
that a consultation be had with the teacher in order to get 
at the case fairly. Ultimately, of course, the superintend- 
ent's recommendation to the board should prevail ; but it 
is best always to remember that the teacher is probably 
the one most directly affected aside from the pupils. If 
the difference hinges on a point that is of serious concern 
to the welfare of the pupils, however, they should always 
be given the benefit of the doubt. 

VIL Corrupt Methods of Publishers 

The above method of procedure in the adoption of books 
presupposes that this choice is to rest in the hands of the 
school authorities of the district. In many states, as we 
have seen, laws have been enacted for the purpose of pro- 
viding for uniformity of text-books. In some cases the 
law has made provision for state uniformity through a text- 
book commission. In other states the law has provided 
for county uniformity only, making it either mandatory or 



S6 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

optional and subject to a vote of the people. Much trouble 
has arisen out of this method of adoption. There is no 
doubt but that it has often resulted in greatly hampering 
the work of high schools. It has also caused many scan- 
dals, and, frequently, the indictment of men in high places 
because of corrupt methods used by publishing houses in 
securing an "adoption." 

By the free text-book plan most of these difficulties 
may be obviated. Of course the argument in favor of 
uniformity from an economic standpoint would disappear 
if pupils did not have to buy books. School authorities 
would then feel free to adopt such books as, in their judg- 
ment, would best serve the particular needs of their com- 
munity. There would still be the possibility of corrupt 
methods in adoption, but the stake would not be so large 
and the temptation to the use of objectionable methods 
therefore much less. 

The state of California has undertaken to meet this 
problem by the state itself becoming the publisher of 
its school texts. At first the texts were especially pre- 
pared by local talent employed for the purpose. This 
resulted in an inferior quality of texts, and was more or 
less damaging to the educational interests of the state. 
Later it has become the custom to purchase copyrights 
wherever suitable manuscripts can be found or to buy 
the use of any copyrighted book for the state of California. 
Under these latter arrangements much more satisfactory 
results are obtained. It does not seem likely nor desir- 
able, however, that this method of dealing with the school 
book question is ever to become a common practice. We 
need all the freedom of initiative possible in order to 
call out the best talent among authors as well as the 
best workmanship in the making of school books. 



SUPPLIES FOR THE USE OF PUPILS 87 

The extensive use of text-books, the large number of 
varieties published, and the insistent demand for changes 
have resulted in building up an immense volume of busi- 
ness. A number of great corporations and some alleged 
trusts have resulted. We have already seen how tempta- 
tions arise out of the desire for larger business and how 
the strenuous competition often leads to corrupt methods 
in securing the adoption of books. This is probably 
no worse than in any other line of business competition. 
But the association of it with our educational system 
is what renders the evil more startling. Naturally, the 
representatives of these publishing houses, who are " out 
for the business," seek to cultivate, by every possible 
means, the good-will of those upon whom devolves the 
recommending of books for adoption. As a consequence 
teachers, principals, and superintendents are frequently 
placed under a close surveillance by rival firms. They 
are sometimes urged to accept favors at the expense of 
"the house" or through the good offices of some repre- 
sentative of it. Cases are not unknown where teachers 
have been threatened with loss of their positions when 
they have refused to make the recommendations desired 
by representatives of the publishers of certain texts. In 
a vast majority of cases, it is fair to say, the publisher 
relies upon the psychological effect of the favors shown 
to produce results. Such resort to threats as above 
noted is rare. The point to the case is that the teacher, 
principal, superintendent, or board member who accepts 
a bribe, however mild in form, or however it may seem 
to be offered, is likely to permit his mind to be prejudiced 
thereby. 

Just what the outcome and effects of such a condition 
are to be is a matter of some concern. It seems evident 



88 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

that teachers everywhere should use great discretion in 
such matters. It is to be hoped also that the publishers 
of school texts will find it more and more desirable to 
frown upon all doubtful practices on the part of their 
representatives. As in many other social interests, this 
is a case where a very few evil doers may cause general 
distrust and dissatisfaction with large and otherwise legiti- 
mate and desirable business interests. 

VIII. Other Supplies of Pupils 

As to other supplies of pupils, most schools furnish such 
items as paper, pens and ink, and drawing materials. 
Specially prepared notebooks should be placed in the 
same category as texts. The more common notebooks 
for seat work or class work and not for preservation would 
better be furnished by the pupils themselves. Otherwise 
they are liable to become very wasteful of this material, 
thus acquiring an expensive and evil habit. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. Growth of the use of text-books in schools. 

2. An examination of high school texts with a view to ascertaining 
the extent of the influence of college methods upon the treatment of 
secondary school subjects. 

3. An examination into the working of free text-book laws. 

4. A study of the California plan of publishing texts. 

5. A study of the history of state adoptions. 

References. — "Our Schools, Their Administration and Supervision," Chan- 
cellor; "Administration of Public Education in the United States," Button and 
Snedden, especially Chapter XIII; Recent Reports of U. S. Commissioner of 
Education ; Recent Educational Reports of New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, 
Missouri, Louisiana ; California Report of 1905-1^6. (See topics in these Reports 
on text-books.) 



CHAPTER VI 

EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE 
INSTRUCTIONAL WORK 

The real dynamic force of the school is the teacher. It 
is necessary that the general organization of schools be 
provided for by wise laws. It is desirable that we have 
modern and well-equipped school buildings. The best 
possible adjustment of the program of studies may well 
call for our careful study. But with all these things at 
their best the school without the teacher is the soulless 
body. There is no greater need for the cause of educa- 
tion to-day than the need of strong, manly men and wom- 
anly women as teachers of the young. To secure these 
for the schools of the nation we may well give of the best 
of our thought, the wisest of our legislation, and the most 
bountifully of our wealth. 

I. Authority to employ Teachers 

The legal authority to employ teachers and principal or 
superintendent of the secondary school is vested in boards 
of education where the schools are public schools, and in 
boards of trustees or proprietors of other institutions. 
This authority carries with it the powers of contracting 
and annulling contracts. The power of making rules gov- 
erning the plan of operation of schools and also of provid- 
ing schools with their material equipment is vested in the 
same authorities. The practice is very general, in this 

89 



90 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

connection, of consulting the wishes of the principal or 
superintendent and allowing him to nominate suitable 
teachers to work under him and to suggest suitable plans 
for equipment as well as rules of operating the school. In 
the smaller public school centers where all social organiza- 
tion is less complete and where the affairs of the particular 
social group are traditionally a matter of general public 
sentiment, such vested privileges are yielded grudgingly by 
the people and often get no farther than the board of edu- 
cation. In such cases the principal or superintendent has 
little or no authority above that of the individual teacher. 
It not infrequently happens under these conditions that the 
schools are practically so many individual groups, each ad- 
ministered by the teacher under the more or less definite 
direction of the board. 

As we ascend to larger centers, however, where the 
people are compelled to resort to more definite division of 
function in the social group, we find the organization of 
the schools more complete. In such centers the superin- 
tendent, and often the high school principal, comes to have 
clearly defined rights and privileges. Much of the author- 
ity vested in boards is delegated to the superintendent 
under the rules of the board governing the schools. He, 
in turn, may be permitted to delegate authority to the 
principal of the high school. 

As the work of the secondary phase of education is 
somewhat strongly differentiated from that of elementary 
schools, requiring radically different treatment in many 
matters of organization and discipline, it happens that, as 
a usual thing, the high school principal comes to have a 
unique relationship to the organization as compared, for 
instance, with the principal of one of the district elemen- 
tary schools of a group. This same difference is often 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 91 

recognized when it becomes necessary, as in large cities, to 
divide part of the work of the superintendent of schools 
among assistant supervisors. The plan in such cases fre- 
quently is to distribute the work by horizontal rather than 
vertical lines of division. In such an instance there would 
come to be a supervisor of high schools who would be the 
means of direct contact with high school principals in all 
matters of privilege and authority, as well as in the admin- 
istration of educational policy. It is needless to say in 
this connection that few educational centers under local 
boards are large enough, or have a sufficient number of 
high schools, to employ an exclusive supervisor of high 
schools. In some cases, as noted in Chapter II, states 
have undertaken some such special supervision under state 
high school boards or state boards of education. 

II. Plan of Organization 

The plan of organization of the work for purposes of 
instruction also varies as we pass from smaller to larger 
groups. The frequent absence of any clearly recognized 
expert authority in the case of smaller educational centers 
often leads to curious complications. Under our present 
system, or rather lack of system, of training teachers, it 
most frequently happens that teachers are best prepared to 
teach along certain lines, while there are other subjects 
taught in high schools of which they know little or nothing. 
With no one to plan the selection of a group of teachers so 
as to provide a competent teacher for each major subject 
with a proper distribution of minor subjects, it frequently 
occurs that two or more teachers with practically the same 
special training will be employed, thus leaving some one or 
more to be assigned to the teaching of subjects for which 
no very complete preparation has been made. 



92 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Where there is a sufficient number of teachers to permit, 
it is customary to arrange the work of instruction on the 
departmental plan. In such a case one or more teachers 
would devote full time to one particular group of high 
school courses, as English, history, mathematics, science, or 
foreign language. If we omit from consideration those 
who are still classed as "special" teachers or supervisors, 
five teachers is about the least number that will admit of 
full departmental organization. In the case of smaller 
groups, however, three teachers whose training has given 
them fair mastery of two major subjects may preserve at 
least a semblance of departmental order. For instance, 
one may teach science and mathematics, another English, 
including English history, and the third foreign language 
and history. In case one of the three is principal, however, 
he should not be the one to assume the science work, as 
this will consume too much of his time where laboratory 
work is provided. 

In the larger schools there is considerable difference in 
practice as to the completeness of organization departmen- 
tally. The logical plan would seem to be, as the number 
of teachers increases, to organize each department with a 
head teacher and assistants. This would throw the leader- 
ship and responsibility for good results upon the depart- 
mental head. Such a plan is very commonly met with in 
the larger schools, but it is by no means a universal practice. 
In some of the most prominent school systems of the 
United States the plan is adhered to of making each de- 
partment simply a coordinate group of teachers all of 
whom are independently responsible to the principal, each 
for some particular phase of the work of a given department. 
A form of departmental organization which has been found 
to work well in large schools is that of head teachers over 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 93 

related groups of subjects. This plan requires fewer heads 
of departments and also admits of a closer correlation of 
such related subjects as are thus grouped. 

The plan of organization by grades, with grade princi- 
pals, also has its adherents, but is not so commonly in use 
as departmental organization. 

Occasionally, also, we find high schools where^ although 
they are large enough readily to admit of departmental or- 
ganization, most of the teachers are found working along 
two or more different lines. It is not always considered 
necessary, even, that these lines be in any sense related lines. 
In fact there are some very good high school principals who 
are inclined to be skeptical as to the results of too close spe- 
cialization on the part of high school teachers. They rather 
hold that the broader view which the treatment of two 
somewhat different lines of work gives and the consequent 
saving from atrophy of certain mental powers of the teacher 
are the things to be desired in one who is to guide the 
youth in this peculiarly critical stage of his training. May 
it be possible that the elective system has something to do 
with this tendency and that it is used as a means of pre- 
serving a balance of influence among high school teachers ? 
That teacher is certainly placed in a difficult situation who 
finds her leading subject without favor among the elective 
subjects of the program. Or is it possible that we may yet 
find it desirable thus to modify permanently the depart- 
mental idea given us from the colleges in order to preserve 
the balance of the mental powers of those who may only 
teach, and to whom, consequently, there is no time given 
for that continuous research which may usually be depended 
upon to preserve the college specialist from such a narrow- 
ing process } 



94 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

III. Individual Work 

There is noticeable also a tendency to emphasize more 
and more the needs of the individual pupil. The heuristic 
method prevails generally in science and manual arts work ; 
and this has its influence on the instructional plans of other 
departments. The practice noted in another chapter of 
seating pupils of one department together for study and 
giving them the advantage of personal guidance and help 
from teachers of that department is another indication 
of this tendency to look after the needs and interests of 
the individual. Still another plan is to employ an extra 
teacher having a good general preparation and a large 
fund of sympathy and common sense with- whom pupils 
who are having special difficulty in any subject may con- 
sult. Such a teacher is assigned a room or office suitable 
for the purpose and is on duty regularly during the hours 
of study and recitation at the school. 

IV. Ratio of Pupils to Teachers 

The whole question of the ratio of the number of 
teachers to the number of pupils is involved here. The 
few authorities who have spoken on this subject seem 
to agree generally on allowing for one teacher to each 
thirty pupils. This is the ratio which prevails in the best 
European schools and it is also the formal recommendation 
of the North Central Association of Colleges and Second- 
ary Schools. Recent statistics on this point show the 
following conditions in a number of our large city high 
schools. The ratios given are based on the enrollment 
at the opening of the present school year (1908) and the 
teachers counted are exclusive of teachers of business, 
music, drawing, manual training, and domestic science i 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 95 

Buffalo, 1 : 30; Cleveland (Central), i : 30; Detroit (Cen- 
tral), min. 1 : 25, max. i : 32, with an average of 28 or 29; 
Des Moines (West), i : 30; Indianapolis (Shortridge), 
I : 34; Kansas City (Central), i : 30; Milwaukee (East 
Division), i : 30; Minneapolis (Central), i : 32; New York 
City, De Witt Clinton, i : 30 or 35, Morris, i : 30; St. Louis, 
1:25; St. Paul (Central), 1:30; Washington, D.C. 
(Central), i : 27 or 28. In Chicago the rule until recently 
has been i : 28 : 35, but this has been amended since the 
opening in September so as to read i : 30. Most of the 
cities above reported have no formal rule, but act upon 
the general ratio of about i : 30 in employing teachers. 
The question involved is a larger one than that of a flat 
ratio of one to thirty more or less. There are wide differ- 
ences among different subjects, and even in different 
phases of the same subject, in this respect. There are 
cases where a group of twelve is large enough for one 
teacher; while in other exercises forty or fifty are readily 
managed at one time. Take, for instance, a group doing 
laboratory work in science and a class in ancient history. 
While it is probably true that better results will be obtained 
even in the history with a small group than with a large 
one, yet it is evident that the more urgent need of the 
small group is in the laboratory work. The same principle 
applies to English where the laboratory method is em- 
ployed as compared with the general class method. In 
the best-organized high schools the employment of labora- 
tory assistants in science and of readers in English com- 
position is found to be an effective means of managing 
classes otherwise too large. 

It is probably safe to assume that the ratio should be 
fewer than thirty to one rather than more. When we 
consider, however, that the question of the number of reci- 



96 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

tations to each teacher must also be fairly met, it is evident 
that the whole problem is one of financial ability. It is 
generally agreed that five recitations per day averaging 
forty-five minutes in length are all that one teacher should 
undertake to do. Here again a mere arbitrary rule leads 
to inconsistencies. In a small school, where one teacher 
must prepare in two or three different subjects, five recita- 
tions means much more work in preparation than the same 
number in one subject, and especially, as sometimes hap- 
pens, in one particular course of that subject. Then, too, 
such work as English composition often involves a large 
amount of labor in reading and marking themes and in 
consultation with pupils which is usually in addition to 
preparation and recitation work. The question is largely 
one of relative fatigue on the part of the teacher, and if it 
is to be adjusted fairly, must be dealt with as such. One 
of the best methods of providing for the equalization of 
work in large high schools, or systems of schools, is by the 
employment of cadet teachers at nominal salaries to as- 
sist in departments where the pressure of work is relatively 
heavy for the individual teachers of a department. This 
has the double advantage of furnishing the desired relief 
and giving opportunity for training in experience to those 
just entering upon the work of teaching. 

Such a method, if more generally used, would help out 
the situation in another way. It is the common practice 
in our present scheme of high school administration for 
the stronger schools to seek almost exclusively teachers 
whose training has been supplemented by a year or more 
of successful experience. This throws most of the begin- 
ners who are fresh from college or normal school into the 
smaller schools where the work is often excessively heavy 
and the supervision comparatively weak. As a result 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 97 

many failures occur and not infrequently by those who 
are capable, under proper conditions, of becoming strong 
teachers. A more general cadet system in our stronger 
high schools where there is usually competent supervision 
would do much to lessen this evident evil. 

V. The Training of Teachers 

This raises the whole question of the proper training for 
secondary teachers. We have found in our discussion of 
the legal status of high schools ^ that only a few of the 
states make any definite provision for the special certifica- 
tion of high school teachers. In a great majority of the 
states, while the laws require certification of competency 
to teach, yet the spirit of the law is ignored in the case 
of high school teachers. It frequently happens, therefore, 
that the legal qualifications provided for by certification 
bear little or no relationship to the real qualifications 
sought in teachers of high school grades. This condition 
of things doubtless grows out of the fact that most states 
in their legal enactments fail to distinguish the high school 
from other departments of the common, school system. 

As a result of this condition a number of educational 
organizations have gone on record as undertaking to 
define the qualifications to be required of those who are 
employed to teach in secondary schools.^ The issuing of 
certificates by state departments has been used as a remedy 
to some extent ; but it easily becomes apparent that mere 
examination tests cannot be made an equivalent for a 
proper system of training. There will always be many 
who will pass fair examinations by cramming for them, 

^ Cf. Chapter II. See also Bolton in School Review, 15 : 97-122. 

2 See Rules for the uniform accrediting of High Schools by the North Central Association 
of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Also Report of the Committee of Seventeen, N. E. A. 
Proceedings, 1907, pp. 523-668. 



98 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

while in reality possessing little of that logically ordered 
mental ability and power of presentation so essential in 
the teacher. All of the states, through the establishment 
of normal schools or through educational departments in 
universities, or both, have recognized the necessity for the 
professional training of teachers. But not all educators 
agree as to what particular kind of training is best for the 
preparation of secondary teachers. Just at the present 
time there is a growing tendency on the part of school 
authorities, probably aided somewhat by prescriptions set 
by colleges and universities, to employ as high school 
teachers only those who are graduates of creditable col- 
leges. At the same time the great universities are seek- 
ing stronger organization of their facilities for the training 
of such teachers. 

This tendency is opposed by some of the normal schools. 
They profess to agree with the universities that higher 
scholarship should be required of secondary teachers than 
that which has usually been required for the granting of a 
normal school diploma. Their chief contention is in regard 
to the professional training. This, they hold, is the prov- 
ince of the normal school and not of the university. They 
maintain that the universities, by their very nature, can 
never impart that professional spirit held to be an impor- 
tant factor in teaching success, and which the great normal 
schools claim as their chief glory. The radical adher- 
ents to this normal school point of view believe that they 
should be permitted to duplicate the necessary collegiate 
work for those of their students who would prepare for 
school supervision or for teaching in high schools. 

The universities contend that this is not feasible ; and 
they would characterize such a course on the part of the 
state as lacking in both logic and economy. They point 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 99 

out that this is only one phase of technical training which 
universities are bound to offer if they are to fulfill their 
function in the state. They emphasize the fact that the 
problem of training teachers, when we include teachers in 
normal schools, colleges, and other technical schools, is 
altogether too large for the normal schools alone to un- 
dertake without themselves duplicating the universities en- 
tirely. In some cases compromise has been sought along 
certain lines. This is notably true in California, where cer- 
tain concessions are made by the university with regard to 
normal-trained people who seek secondary teachers' certifi- 
cates. 

If all teaching were put upon a basis of professional 
training, the normal schools would be compelled by the 
limitation of numbers to confine their activities to the train- 
ing of elementary teachers and leave the problem of the 
training of secondary and college teachers to the colleges 
and universities. It is not to be forgotten, however, that 
for the present the universities are hardly prepared for this 
service. Nowhere in the country is there, as yet, a depart- 
ment or school or college of education in a university which 
can offer for the training of secondary teachers, including 
the imparting of a professional spirit, any such adequate 
preparation as is given by our best normal schools to ele- 
mentary teachers. Nothing short of a school or college of 
education with a distinct enrollment and faculty and with 
some kind of provision for practice teaching or cadet ser- 
vice will enable the universities to meet this problem. 
All things considered, no other institution is so well quali- 
fied in other respects to undertake the work. Indeed, it 
may be said that it is one of the most fundamental services 
to society which universities may be expected to render. 
Perhaps a fairer view of this whole matter would be ex- 



100 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

pressed in that conception of the university of a state 
which would include the normal schools as technical 
departments on a par with agriculture, engineering, etc. 
Such an organization in a state might settle the whole con- 
troversy without loss to any and with profit to all. 

\ VI. Their Training in Service 

• But whether high school teachers are trained in one 
institution or another, such training does not do away with 
the necessity for further effort on their part toward pro- 
fessional attainments. The nature of the teacher's work 
demands constant effort to fight off paralysis of all powers 
except those employed in the routine of school duties.^ To 
provide against such paralysis various professional organi- 
zations have been perfected. No scheme for instructional 
organization in a high school is complete which does not in 
some way provide for the continuation of the individual 
teacher's development. First of all this development 
should be along professional hnes. There is little to be 
hoped for from the normal school or college graduate who 
concludes that all his professional training has been pro- 
vided for, and that nothing remains to be done but to find a 
position and enter serenely upon the duties of the teacher's 
life. 

In the pioneer days of our educational system the gen- 
eral teachers' meeting was devised as the best means of 
providing for professional advancement. This, however, 
has grown into what is often a mere emotional demonstra- 
tion with the great body of teachers as passive recipients, 
until getting an educational "inspiration " has gone through 
all conscious stages of voluntary action and settled down 

1 See Cooley, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1907, pp. 94-103; also Van Sickle, soth An. Vol. 
N. E. A., 1906, pp. 177-183. 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS loi 

into a mere habit. As a result most of our well-trained 
high school teachers attend such gatherings only under 
compulsion. They prefer such special groups as associa- 
tions of teachers of science, history, modern languages, 
manual arts, business, etc. This often brings high school 
teachers and college instructors and professors into the 
same group, which is more as it should be ; for each should 
have something to give to the other in such a discussion 
of a common subject from the differing viewpoints of those 
approaching it at different levels. 

But the social and cultural side of the teacher's life 
often presents even more imperative demands for atten- 
tion. This is only partially and poorly provided for in 
any educational meeting. The case calls for the broaden- 
ing influence of contact with people of other interests, of 
other points of view. Shopworn goods are invariably 
marked down. Teachers, of all others, should avoid this 
fate ; yet to avoid it means to set their strength against 
a strong, almost irresistible current. Is a teachers' club 
proposed for the social advantage of its members ^ If 
such activity is to be confined to but one organization, seek, 
rather, membership in a club more cosmopolitan. Is a 
broader culture to be sought ? Attach yourself to some 
interest foreign to the school, if possible. Travel with 
people of the world rather than with pedagogical excur- 
sionists. Take an interest in some art or craft or line 
of reading which will not permit the mind to hark back 
continuously to the schoolroom and its problems. This is 
facing westward to find the East. The outcome will be 
the East ultimately, of course ; but in finding it you have 
seen the West as well, and are by so much the richer 
for it. 



102 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

VII. Compensation and Tenure 

If the schools are to command the services of teachers 
trained as suggested above, there must be considerable 
change in at least two important respects. There must 
be a fairer compensation for the service rendered, and the 
tenure of the teacher must be made more certain. On 
the theory that service should receive compensation that is 
commensurate with what it adds to the material wealth and 
to the security of the people the teacher is not yet receiv- 
ing his share of the increase. As a result our better trained 
men and women are seeking other fields and the supply of 
trained teachers is becoming yearly more and more inade- 
quate. This condition is aggravated by the uncertainty 
of remaining employed. There is apparently no good 
reason, setting aside tradition, why a teacher who has 
taken up the work as his chosen profession after thorough 
preparation, and who has shown his ability to instruct in 
an approved manner, should not be permanently employed 
rather than subjected to the uncertainties of annual re- 
appointment. 

On this matter of tenure the high school teacher is actu- 
ally better off than any other group aside from principals 
and superintendents of schools. Statistician C. H. Verrill 
derives a number of interesting generalizations from the 
report of the N. E. A. Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and 
Pensions of Public School Teachers in the United States.^ 
Among other things he is able to show that in 333 cities 
with populations of 8000 or over the average duration of 
service of all teachers was found to be 1 1|- years. As only 
about 8|- per cent of the teachers included were high school 
teachers, and as a much larger proportion of these are men 

1 See pp. 459-464 of that report. 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 103 

than in the case of teachers in the elementary schools, we 
may reasonably conclude, in the absence of more specific 
data, that the average tenure for high school teachers 
would be appreciably higher. While this is not so bad 
as in the case of the vast majority of elementary school 
teachers, yet it would seem to be altogether too low. If 
we are to insist upon the high standards of preparation 
which competent service on the part of the teacher de- 
mands, we should also seek to secure for him permanency 
of appointment on conditions similar to those commonly 
prevaiHng in college and university service. 

The matter of tenure itself is, however, as Mr. Verrill 
points out (p. 459 of same report), largely dependent upon 
the matter of salaries. Teachers are not likely to seek 
permanency of appointment if this cannot mean a com- 
pensation, after a reasonable term of service, that is com- 
mensurate with the demands of '* appropriate standards of 
living." Nor can this problem as related to the high 
school teacher disentangle itself entirely from the corre- 
sponding problem for elementary teachers. The school 
public in the United States is not yet sufficiently discrimi- 
nating in regard to differences in standards involved in the 
training required by these respective groups of teachers to 
deal fairly with it. As long as professional standards are 
too low for the elementary group, therefore, there is sure 
to be an adverse influence toward better salaries and longer 
tenure that will be felt by all groups, including high school 
teachers. 

The inadequacy of salaries is too well known to need a 
detailed presentation here. The National Education Asso- 
ciation has done a great service in collecting through its 
committee the materials set forth in the report above re- 
ferred to. The fundamental question demanding solution 



I04 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

before any very satisfactory readjustment of salaries can 
be reached involves the whole matter of the means em- 
ployed in financing our system of public education. Here 
again the National Association has taken forethought in 
providing for the collection of much valuable information 
concerning taxation as related to the problems of public 
education.^ Such materials will doubtless be needed for 
further study in future attempts to get at the roots of the 
whole matter. We have already pointed out, under the 
discussion of the legal status of high schools, the various 
attempts which different states have made toward a more 
satisfactory and equitable means of maintaining our high 
schools. Is not this, after all, the fundamental thing next 
to which, and as its logical offset, comes the absolute re- 
quirement of a higher qualification standard for high school 
teachers ? Back of this, and underlying the problem of 
betterment of the elementary school there may be, and 
doubtless are, needs of readjustment of our entire general 
revenue scheme ; but so far as the high schools are con- 
cerned the first thing is to determine who, of right, should 
maintain them. 

There is, however, another phase of the salary question 
which demands consideration as a factor in administration : 
On what basis are we to determine salary promotions of 
high school teachers ? In the first place the movement by 
several states leading to the fixing by law of the teachers' 
minimum wage seems unfortunate, although it doubtless 
has given temporary relief in some cases. The local con- 
ditions must determine to some extent what interpreta- 
tion is to be given to the phrase " appropriate standards of 
living " ; and if so, then these same local conditions must 
help to determine the minimum pay. As has already been 

* See Report of Committee of N. E. A., 1905, on Taxation as Related to Public Education. 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 105 

suggested, the standards of preparation demanded must 
enter into the problem of minimums. Then the ideals of 
the community as regards the social standing and duties 
of the teacher, as well as the expectations of administra- 
tive officers in regard to the nature and amount of effort 
to be put forth by the teacher for self-improvement in a 
professional way, also have weight in this matter. 

When once the base line of salaries has been established 
for a given high school or group of schools, what is to be 
the basis for increase in salary, and what the maximum 
limit ? The latter point will be disposed of with the inter- 
pretation given to "appropriate standards of living," in- 
cluding, of course, the maintenance and education of a 
family, and also a reasonable provision for the future. The 
remaining considerations which may fairly be expected to 
bring an increase in salary are : — 

(i) Increased efficiency due to service. This will not 
extend over the entire period of a normal life of service, 
perhaps, although it will vary greatly with individuals, 
and its duration will depend on the next factor to be 
considered. 

(2) Increased efficiency due to further study and inves- 
tigation along the lines of professional work or along con- 
tributory lines. The possibilities for increased efficiency 
in this direction will depend chiefly on (a) native ability 
and (d) thoroughness of first preparation. It is evident 
that in this respect high school teachers would come under 
a class different from that of elementary teachers. Who 
is to say what the upper limit is to be to the value of the 
services of those who thus become great in their particu- 
lar spheres ? What puts a limit to the compensation for 
the genius of a great lawyer, a great physician, a great 
financier, or captain of industry ? It is evident that when 



io6 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

we speak of a maximum limit, we are thinking of the teacher 
in a class by himself, as different from other men ! 

(3) There may arise the consideration of certain condi- 
tions of supply and demand, more or less variable, as a 
further factor in determining increase of salary. It would 
seem just that some leeway should always exist in the 
authoritative adjustment of teachers' salaries to permit the 
consideration of such an economic contingency. 

But what are we to say with regard to the sex factor ? 
Should it be a real factor in the adjustment of high school 
salaries? This is a question involving some careful dis- 
crimination of judgment if it is to be treated with fairness 
and candor. In the first place it is fair to say that the 
third point mentioned above as having to do with salary 
increase must, to a certain extent, have consideration here. 
The rapid increase in the number of women graduating 
from our colleges and universities, taken in connection with 
the fact that the field for independent service by educated 
women is rather circumscribed, naturally produces an eco- 
nomic situation of relative oversupply. This, however, 
may be disposed of as only a temporary condition. The 
real answer to the questions just raised lies deeper. 

The question sums itself up as a matter of ultimate pur- 
pose on the part of the woman who teaches. If she has 
put into her preparation the same mental power and capa- 
bility as the man, with no wavering as to ultimate purpose 
to vitiate this effort, and if she enters upon the work of 
teaching possessed of an ability the equivalent of the man's 
ability and with steadfastness of aim, how can there be 
any question of difference as to compensation except 
such a possible economic difference as suggested above ? 
"But," says some one, "do you mean that every woman 
who teaches should take the vow of a celibate?" This 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 107 

does not follow. It is readily conceivable that any woman 
may enter upon the life of a teacher in the spirit described 
above without abridging her freedom to act in the light of 
future and unforeseen emergencies. 

On the other hand, when women assume the r61e of 
teaching merely as a transition stage, as hundreds do, and 
with no strong purpose running back into the years of 
their preparation, then there are most decided grounds for 
difference as to the salaries they should command. Fur- 
thermore, as long as there may be any considerable num- 
ber of this latter class, they will naturally tend to hold 
down the salaries of all women who teach, and, to a certain 
extent, of all teachers, male or female. 

If this is the correct analysis of the points at issue in the 
sex phase of the problem of salaries, then the women of 
New York City, in asking for legislation that would enable 
them to command salaries equal to those of men where 
equal service was rendered, must have acted without due 
consideration of all the conditions. 

VIII. Pensions 

The subject of teachers' pensions may be dismissed with 
a very brief statement. The suggestion of it is another 
way of saying that salaries are inadequate. The remedy 
should be aimed at the root of the difficulty. The only 
possible ground for argument in its favor rests in the as- 
sumption that teachers as a class are improvident. There 
is good reason to believe that the facts are quite to the 
contrary. It is probably true that teachers are frequently 
failures at any independent business venture. They have 
devoted all their strength to the work of their profession. 
Men who can succeed equally well in any two great fields 
of human endeavor at the same time are exceedingly rare. 



io8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

What teachers probably need more than pensions is some 
organization through which they might find a way for the 
safe and profitable investment of their necessarily scant 
savings without becoming a prey to the robberies fre- 
quently carried on under the guise of successful business 
practice. 

IX. Selection and Nomination of Teachers 

One of the most difficult problems connected with the 
administration of a high school is the selecting and nomi- 
nating of suitable teachers when vacancies occur. This 
calls for great care and good judgment. Aside from the 
difficulty in deciding just what qualities of person and 
preparation shall determine the choice, there are several 
other things which enter into the consideration. In the 
first place the question of salary is to be met Probably the 
majority of school boards are either unwilling or unable to 
pay the price which a well-trained and successful teacher 
should command; yet these are both important considera- 
tions. General testimonials in the hands of candidates 
must usually be taken with a grain of allowance even by 
one who knows how to read them in a way to get the force 
of omissions as well as of the good things said concerning 
:the bearer. Nothing short of a careful investigation by 
the board or by the superintendent ought to be taken as a 
basis for employment. Yet in the majority of cases little 
time is usually given for such investigation. 

When it comes to the consideration of graduates of in- 
stitutions, it is safe to conclude that these institutions may 
be consulted through committees or secretaries appointed 
to look after all calls for teachers and to give to school 
authorities a full statement of the qualifications of any can- 
didate under consideration so far as these are known to 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 109 

the committees. Where such is the case, it is reasonable 
to suppose that a safer estimate of the teaching ability of 
a candidate may be had from such committees or secre- 
taries than from almost any other source. 

The teachers' agency is another well-known means now 
available for help in finding suitable candidates to fill 
vacancies in the teaching ranks of a school. The number 
of these agencies has greatly increased within the past few 
years. Like most business enterprises, this agency work 
has been undertaken by all kinds of people. Until quite 
recently nothing has been said as to the desirability of 
placing any special legal restriction upon the business. 
As a result some very unscrupulous practices have grown 
up so that one is hardly safe in consulting an agency unless 
it is vouched for by reliable parties who know its standing. 

There is no doubt but that a good agency may prove 
very helpful to school authorities in finding suitable can- 
didates. The usual plan adopted by agencies, however, 
of sending in a long list of appHcants for a single vacancy 
is deplorable from every point of view. It is hardly fair 
to the candidates, it creates a false impression as to the 
supply of available teachers, and as a natural result arouses 
a feeling of distrust towards all agencies in the minds of 
school authorities and candidates. There are a few good 
agencies which try to avoid such practices. These may 
usually be consulted with safety and with some prospect 
of getting at what is wanted if any candidate is available. 

X. The Principal 

Having now discussed the general features of the prob- 
lem which the organization of the instructional work pre- 
sents, we may conclude this presentation of the subject by 
summing up the character and function of the instructional 



no HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

corps as a whole. Given the high school with its principal 
and teachers just as they are, with all their capabilities and 
limitations as men and women, and with the rules and laws 
of the average community and of the average state, what 
ought we to expect of them ? How ought they to act ? 

In the first place it is granted, of course, that the prin- 
cipal is responsible to the superintendent, and through him 
to the board, for the wise and successful administration 
of the school. It is he who is to direct all the internal 
workings of the school and to stand for it before the 
patrons under the rules of the board as interpreted by the 
superintendent. He is expected to have an ideal toward 
which his school is developing. This ideal is expected to 
be in harmony not only with the general educational policy 
of the district, but also with the best thought in regard to 
the training of youth. He is expected to make recom- 
mendations in regard to rules for the government of the 
school, of text-books to be selected, of apparatus, reference 
books, and supplies to be provided, of changes in the pro- 
gram of studies ; and usually, except in small schools, he 
makes recommendations of teachers to be appointed. He 
is responsible for the proper adjustment of the material 
and sanitary conditions of the building within the limita- 
tions of its construction and of the rulings of the board ; 
for the adjustment of difficulties among the pupils, or be- 
tween teacher and pupil ; for the satisfaction of complaints 
by patrons when coming directly to him and within his 
jurisdiction, or when requested to do so by the superin- 
tendent. He is to see carefully to the keeping of all 
proper and necessary records of the school, and to keep 
in close touch and communication with the superintendent, 
consulting his interests in the larger problems of the schools 
as touching the high school, and advising freely with him 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS m 

in regard to all plans and policies of importance connected 
with the management of the high school. 

His most important function, however, is in his direct 
relationship to his teachers, and, both directly and through 
the teachers, his relationship to the pupils and to the 
school life as a whole. In most of the matters, for in- 
stance, which have just been mentioned as belonging to 
the office of principal, he will naturally consult the inter- 
ests of the teachers in so far as these things may affect 
the teachers and the success of their work. He will seek 
their advice and cooperation in all important questions of 
policy relating to the discipline of the school. He will 
protect the interests of the teachers to the extent that such 
protection is due and within his province, in all matters 
pertaining to their material and physical well-being, their 
professional and social interests and advancement. He 
will interest himself, in a sincere and sympathetic spirit, 
with the peculiar problems of each teacher's sphere of work. 
To this end he will familiarize himself with their work by 
observing their instruction and by advising with them con- 
cerning their plans, their hopes, their difficulties. He will 
counsel, admonish, warn, commend, and vindicate them and 
their work, as occasion requires and in the same spirit 
of sincerity and sympathy. He should stand before his 
school as one fully conscious of the gravity of his relation- 
ship, yet saved by an optimistic spirit, a fine sense of 
humor, and well-preserved physical health, from any de- 
pressing effect on that account. 

XI. The Departmental Head 

We have spoken here of the principal in direct rela- 
tionship to the teachers and as becoming familiar with 
their work. It is just here, perhaps, that high school or- 



112 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ganization has most frequently failed. Writers on school 
management usually close their discussions on the relation- 
ship of principal to teachers when they get as far as the 
eighth grade. On the other hand, college instructors and 
college-trained high school teachers conceive of high school 
organization in terms of college organization. Earlier in 
this chapter it was pointed out that the departmental plan 
of organization should prevail. It does not follow that 
"department" in a high school should mean the same 
that it does in the college or university. The passing 
from the mixed group of the elementary school should be 
more gradual, the approach toward the specialization of 
the college should be through a larger grouping of sub- 
jects more or less closely related. 

Therefore, in this intermediate stage of high school 
organization should come the departmental head. He is 
the one who can come close to the teachers dealing with 
a certain outlook on the educative processes of the 
secondary stage. If it be in science he thinks primarily 
of the mental attitude to be developed in the pupil rather 
than the production of an embryo investigator in some 
circumscribed field of science. To such a departmental 
head, having the oversight of all the science work of the 
high school and its relations and applications to other high 
school activities, the leading interest will riot be to push a 
class in chemistry or biology. He will be concerned chiefly 
in having the work in either of these Unes so presented in 
its individuality and in its relationships as to make it con- 
tribute directly and effectively to the training of mind into 
the scientific habit or attitude. 

So in the language work modern languages, including 
English or all foreign language work, may form a depart- 
mental group to be presided over by a head teacher with 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 113 

sufficient breadth of training and outlook to see that the 
best possible results accrue to the pupils through the 
organized, cooperative work of the various individual 
teachers under his special leadership. 

It is only by some such broad scheme of departmental 
organization that we shall be able to correct the present 
tendency to over-specialization on the part of high school 
teachers. In accomplishing this result we have a right to 
expect the hearty cooperation of colleges and universities 
in the planning of courses for those who are to teach. The 
neglect or oversight of these institutions as to the real 
interests of secondary education is too gross to be even 
excusable. 

Perhaps nowhere are the results of this sin of omission 
more seriously felt than in the smaller high schools. It is 
here that a large proportion of our high school teachers 
are required ; and yet to these schools there go out annu- 
ally from our colleges and universities hundreds of inex- 
perienced graduates, many of whom have a teaching 
knowledge of only one subject where they should be pre- 
pared in at least three. 

XII. The Teacher 

To all the conditions of organization set forth above, 
whether those relating to the principal or to the head 
teacher of the department, the teachers, each teacher, will 
respond in a spirit of cooperation and cheerful acqui- 
escence, if worthy the position of teacher. Each will seek 
to understand and enter into the aims and spirit of the 
organization in order that together teachers, head teachers, 
and principal may work toward the ideal set up for their 
attainment. There will be freedom of discussion and 
expression of views when they counsel together; but when 



114 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

once a course of action, a policy, is decided upon, they wi][ 
work together for its accompHshment. They will do team 
work ; and they will share together the struggle of severe 
conflict, the exultation over victory, and the pain of defeat. 

The result of such a spirit upon the school as a whole is 
inevitable. If discordant elements have existed, they will 
be eliminated ; the spirit of helpfulness, of cooperation, of 
loyalty to the school, will become contagious. Mistakes will 
occur, there ^yill be things to explain, to condone, to regret ; 
but the work and life of the school as a whole will tend 
steadily towards orderliness, homogeneity, permanency. 

Given a principal and teachers properly qualified in 
other respects, with a sane and effective scheme of or- 
ganization and working thus with unity of purpose ; given 
a proper motive for the work of the school and for the 
differing types of pupils in it ; given a worthy ideal for the 
life of the school as a whole, — and there is no other one 
social factor which is so far-reaching and so stimulating in 
its uplift to the community as is the modern high school. 
And this is no idle dream. It is realized to-day, even at 
this imperfect stage of its organization, in some hundreds 
of American communities. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1 . An investigation with a view to ascertaining the general nature 
of the rules adopted by boards for the government of high schools. 

2. A study of the status of the high school principal in his relation- 
ship to the superintendent of schools. 

3. An inquiry into the extent to which three-teacher high schools 
are departmental in their plan of instruction. 

4. A study of the heuristic method and the extent of its use in high 
schools, with results. 

5. An examination into the social status of high school teachers in 
the United States. 



EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS 115 

6. Tenure of position by high school teachers. 

7. To what extent are salaries of high school teachers affected by 
those who purposely make teaching a temporary occupation ? 

References. — " Certification of Teachers" (in Part II of Fifth Year Book, 
National Society for the Scientific Study of Education), E. P. Cubberly; " Report 
of the Committee of Seventeen on the Professional Preparation of High School 
Teachers," N. E. A. Proceedings, 1907 ; " Who shall appoint Teachers, and on 
whose Nomination ? " Tarbell, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1893, PP* 7^ ff., with discus- 
sion ; " Problems of Training of Secondary Teachers in the United States," G. W. 
Luckey; "The Departmental Organization of Secondary Schools," Julius Sachs, 
Education, 27:484-496; "Adjustment of Secondary Work to the Individual," 
Florence Milner, School Review, Vol. 14, pp. 522-528 ; " Individual Instruction," 
M. F. Andrew, Education, Vol. 26, pp. 129-136 ; " The Basis of Grading Teachers' 
Salaries," Cooley, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1907; " Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions," 
N. E. A. Committee Report, 1905 ; " Taxation as related to Public Education," 
N. E. A. Committee Report, 1905 ; " Status of the Teacher in the United States ; 
Observations of a German Expert," Lang, Forum, 29'. (iO-yx\ "What should be 
the Basis for the Promotion of Teachers and the Increase of Teachers' Salaries ? " 
Van Sickle, 50th An. Vol. N. E. A., 1906 ; " The Public School Teacher and Pro- 
motional Examinations," Tuell, Education, 28 : 217-223 ; " The Preparation of 
High School Teachers : What they Receive and What they Should Receive," 
Bolton, School Review, 15 : 97-122 ; " Pubhc School Finance ; What Next ? " 
N. E. A. Proceedings, 1907, pp. 343-360; " A Neglected Aspect of the American 
High School," Thorndike, Educational Review, 33 : 245-255. See also various 
works on school management. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 

In the first chapter we have noted some of the tenden- 
cies which a brief historical review of the programs of 
secondary schools reveals. We have seen that secondary 
schools have responded to social needs as these have 
appeared. Indeed, we may almost say that the develop- 
ment of secondary education is a fair index of the shifting 
demands of our social evolution. This is true because of 
the fact that it is here in the middle school that first the 
need is felt of some sort of specialized training. 

I. Determining Conditions 

Unlike the period of elementary education the age of 
pubescence brings with it a widening social interest and a 
desire to choose a calling. This is due largely to the de- 
velopment of sex instincts and the consequent wider out- 
look on life and its social relations. Naturally the youth 
seeks in his experiences a response to the growing sense 
of the prospect of a larger participation in this life. He 
begins to catch glimpses of the approach of responsibilities 
which he must prepare to meet. He grows distrustful of 
any education that does not promise this preparation. Un- 
like the elementary child he is no longer satisfied to take 
his education entirely on faith. He wants to know the 
value of what he is getting in the light of the vision of 
his life that is to be. It is not necessarily to be implied 

ii6 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 117 

that on this account we are to undertake, at this period, to 
train specialists ; but that we are to differentiate the pos- 
sible curriculum of the individual more to the end that it 
may serve both as a means of testing his ability along a 
given line and also as a suitable foundation for future 
specialization either in the work of life or in the university. 
In the light of present tendencies, as well as in the light 
of the apparent and probable social needs to which sec- 
ondary education should minister, we shall now undertake 
a more detailed discussion of the program of studies. In 
doing this we must assume that the elementary schools 
are able to turn pupils over to the high schools with at 
least as much preparation as has been suggested in Chap- 
ter III. 

II. Basis for Classification into Courses 

The first question which presents itself at this point is : 
On what basis shall we classify the courses of the program 
so as best to enable us to preserve a balanced condition as 
to the training it offers ? The ordinary laity, as well as 
some of the profession, insist on grouping subjects as either 
practical or cultural. In making this classification there is 
evidently the thought that certain lines of school training 
bear a direct relationship to preparation for the duties of 
life, while others bear little or no such relationship. As 
a rule this class would put the emphasis on those subjects 
which they consider practical, to the limitation or exclusion 
of such subjects as are not readily associated by them with 
the practical standards set up. 

Such a view of the educational process would, if domi- 
nant, be likely to omit from the training of youth much of 
that which goes to make the historic races what they are 
in the development of the world and of mankind. It is 



Il8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

quite essential that the young should be taught the more 
fundamental arts of living ; but it is no less so that they 
should know something of the relationships, the responsi- 
bilities, and the uplifting influences of the social group to 
which they belong. 

Another classification of the materials of secondary edu- 
cation may be called the traditional one. This has come 
to us out of the educational history of the past. The 
grouping in this case has reference more particularly to 
the origin of the materials which the various subjects rep- 
resent. Such a classification would give us the humanities, 
or all those subjects, as language, literature, art, and his- 
tory, springing from human associations and activities ; 
the natural sciences, or physical science, biology, and 
earth science; political science and economics, having to 
do with governments, and with industrial relations and 
activities and finance. This is a very interesting and 
helpful grouping, and one that we need to preserve for 
both its historical and its scientific value. 

A more modern view of education, however, as we have 
seen in a preceding chapter, takes quite a different basis 
for the classification of educational subjects. This point 
of view assumes, in the first place, that education is 
much more a matter of growth and training than impart- 
ing information. It asks first, then. What are the results 
to be desired in the training of youth ? and, second, What 
will be the probable effect of a given line of work or group- 
ing of subjects toward bringing about these desired results ? 

The procedure must then be from a psychological point 
of view, on the one hand, and from the point of view of 
adjustment to environment, or the sociological point of 
view, on the other. If the humanities are to be consid- 
ered, they must be put to the test chiefly as to the rela- 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 



119 



tionship they are to bear to the mental experiences of the 
adolescent in the process of his mental evolution. Here 
the method, even, is to be put to the test. The youth 
is to be socialized; what particular application of the 
humanities, and in what relationship to other lines of 
experience, will best do it .? He is to be trained to alert- 
ness in acquiring and comparing data, and in determining 
between fact and probability ; what is science training, 
combined with training in other lines, to have to do with 
the accomplishment of such a purpose .? He is to be pre- 
pared to play his part as a citizen, as a factor in the busi- 
ness and industrial affairs of life ; what economic training, 
including direct contact with material things, and the 
sympathetic training of actual participation in industry, 
will best make him ready to act his part ? 

Not merely the cultural or practical, certainly not the 
merely traditional, is longer to be preferred, then. When 
once the desired adjustment is understood ; when once we 
have gained some knowledge of the causal relations of 
what we are pleased to consider the materials of education 
to the development process in youth and to the attainment 
of educational ideals, then this understanding and this 
knowledge shall furnish us with the real science of sec- 
ondary education. We shall no longer have to grope 
about for a basis on which to adjust our program of 
studies. Some little headway has already been made 
toward such an end. The knowledge gained is mostly 
empirical, to be sure ; but it is not to be despised. Even 
with the imperfect knowledge now in our possession of 
the principles involved in a psychological classification of 
the materials of education, we are probably safer to pro* 
ceed on such a basis than we would be to rely solely upon 
the popular or traditional conceptions. 



120 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

III. Elements involved in the Program 

With this understanding of the Hmitations which con- 
front us, we may now proceed to a more definite considera- 
tion of the elements involved in the secondary program. 

In his report for 1894- 1895 the late Superintendent 
Soldan, of St. Louis, expresses a very fundamental prin- 
ciple with reference to the classification of the materials of 
education. He says, " Assimilation and activity, or recep- 
tivity and spontaneity, are two poles round which the 
world of the school must revolve." Here is a definite 
statement of the differing content of the two hemispheres 
of the educational process which we have spoken of in 
another chapter as stimulation and reaction. This fur- 
nishes us a basis for the most general as well as funda- 
mental grouping. Whatever is capable of being received 
and assimilated by the mind of youth, to become a part 
of that which impels to action or to spontaneous expres- 
sion of some sort, or which serves as a basis for future 
conduct, will go into one group of materials. Whatever will 
give conventional ease and skill in action or expression along 
the lines of the manifold needs of mankind, as now situated 
in history and in nature, will belong to the second group. 

As we have found that in the elementary stage of edu- 
cation progress comes through a pretty close correlation 
of stimulation and reaction, so in the secondary stage we 
may expect the best results in the acquiring of arts by 
continuing this correlation. The necessity will soon ap- 
pear, however, for a tendency toward isolation. More and 
more, as the student progresses, will his desire center in 
the cultivation of the art for its own sake, on the one hand, 
and, on the other, to the development of systems of 
thought reaching forward into the realms of speculation. 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 121 

Viewed in this way there is no ready-made line of dis- 
tinct division separating the ordinary subjects taught in 
the high schools into two such groups. There is, however, 
a classification sufficient for practical purposes. It is easy 
to see, for instance, that the materials for stimulation, or 
reception and assimilation, are to be found in the fields of 
nature and of history, using this latter term again in its 
broader sense. But the group of subjects which will cor- 
respond to training in action or expression is not at all 
clearly defined. In practically every phase of them we 
find a merging into the field of stimulative or impressional 
materials. 

This amounts to saying that each particular type of ex- 
pressional activity has, out of the very process of its 
development, accumulated a mass of historical or scien- 
tific materials, or both. Take, for instance, language ; the 
teaching of the mother tongue or of a foreign language 
will soon lead to the grammar and the literature of the 
language, — the one a science, the other an art, which have 
sprung from use in expression. Drawing and color work 
lead directly up to the historical study of art in these par- 
ticular fields. Mathematics will be found to have much 
of interest in the realm of history as well as a strong foot- 
ing in the field of science. Constructive work becomes 
immediately connected with history on the one hand, as 
a basis for interpretation, and with science on the other 
hand, which must be constantly applied in the accomplish- 
ment of desired results. Its more or less direct relation- 
ship to art, especially decorative art, is also readily 
apparent. So, also, music, from being a training to the 
expression, through harmony, of the finer or deeper feel- 
ings and emotions, passes over into the realm of an art 
whose masterpieces are to be studied, and whose history 
is to be read. 



122 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

IV. Each Course Defined : History 

We shall not be confused, therefore, when we speak of 
the impressional or stimulative subjects, and the expres- 
sional subjects which make up the various courses of the 
high school program. Under impressional subjects we 
may first consider the historical or sociological group. 
The subjects belonging most distinctively to this group 
are history, including ancient, mediaeval, and modern; 
civics; economics, beginning with economic history or 
geography, and passing into an elementary study of the 
theories and principles involved in the production of 
wealth and in industrial relations. Secondarily would be 
included the historical aspects of such art phases as litera- 
ture, architecture, painting, sculpture, decorative work, 
music ; and the historical phases of all arts and sciences. 
What are the reasons, in the light of modern ideas of edu- 
cation, for including this group in the secondary program } 
First of all, in the process of adjustment to his environ- 
ment, the individual needs to know what his present 
situation is historically. In order to be able to compre- 
hend the institutions, the social movements and tendencies 
about him, man must know something of the history of 
these things. Adjustment to environment is not to be a 
mere passive relationship. Men are still reacting upon 
each other and upon their institutions. In order to par- 
ticipate intelligently in this reforming process they must 
know something of the doctrines and the theories concern- 
ing organized society which history shows to be either 
partially or utterly false, or potentially if not actively true. 

Incidentally, if the work along these lines is well con- 
ducted, the knowledge acquired of his own institutions as 
seen in comparison with those of the past will develop in 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 123 

the youth that interest in and love for these institutions 
which is the only sure ground for honest patriotism. The 
process of training should also lead to such habits of care- 
ful weighing of evidence as will foster a sincere devotion 
to truth. 

While this more specific training is being given, the 
mental powers are also being benefited. On the side of 
intellect the memory, the constructive imagination, and the 
power of reasoning inductively are being strengthened. 
At the same time the ethical judgment is constantly stimu- 
lated, while some of the criteria, at least, for sound aes- 
thetic judgment are being acquired. 

If the work of the elementary school has been well done, 
the youth will come to his high school training with a 
fairly clear notion of historical perspective. He will have 
acquired means of interpreting historical records in his 
contact with and study of the elements of society about 
him. He will also be fairly familiar with the great names 
of history and something of what they stand for ; and he 
will have at his command the more elementary arts of the 
school. What may we best offer him, and in what order, 
in his secondary training } 

We are limited as to time. Probably three years, at 
most, may be given to this subject by the individual. If 
he is to find his present place in history, it would seem as 
though he must trace the main currents of sequence ; yet 
he may not grasp the whole sweep of history. This is the 
dream of those who advocate a course in general history ; 
but the number of such advocates is rapidly diminishing. 
The history that will contribute most to an understanding 
of our own institutional life is that of Greece, Rome, and 
England, followed by a careful study of the colonial and 
constitutional periods of our own history. Somewhere in 



124 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the three years should come the history of the leading arts, 
especially of literature ; the development of the science of 
government as found in this country, and the more funda- 
mental principles of economics, given, as far as possible, in 
the Hght of the history from which, chiefly, they have been 
deduced. If a fourth year is to be offered, it may well be 
a course in mediaeval and modern European history. 

It is probably true that as far as these courses themselves 
are concerned it makes little difference as to the order of 
sequence. If each one is presented in a manner to corre- 
spond to the capacity of the class, it will make little differ- 
ence where we begin. But if we are to have in mind 
chiefly the finding of his present place in history, the youth 
will probably find his way easier if he begins nearest the 
source and follows the stream, in its broadening sweep, 
down to modern times and his own nation. Such a se- 
quence will also aid greatly in the study and interpretation 
of literature. A further consideration, if needed, will 
appear in the fact that the study of such abstractions from 
history as political and economic sciences will naturally 
need a strong and rather complete historical back- 
ground. 

First, then, would come the course in ancient history in 
the first or second year of the program. Such a placing 
of this course makes it impracticable to shorten the an- 
cient history to less than a year, as some now advocate. 
Pupils are too immature at this time in their course to be 
expected to get hold of the institutional development and 
the causes of weakness and decay among Greeks and 
Romans in less than a year's time. 

Further, it is a notable fact that the histories of Greece 
and Rome furnish us with the only national types in any 
direct way related to our own, and which at the same time 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 125 

present life histories in practically complete cycles. Their 
achievements thus beconie ultimate products of their ex- 
istence as nations ; and the chain of sequences springing 
from their origin, nationally, rising to the zenith of their 
greatness, and sweeping on to their decay and legacy, is 
fairly well defined and traceable. 

If three years are to be offered, then a year of English 
history may follow in the third year of the course. For 
smaller high schools, at least, this may well include the 
history of the literature of the English people. If sup- 
plemented by numerous themes based on the history, and 
by some outside reading of historical classics, this will 
satisfactorily replace any regular English work for the 
third year, and thus leave more time for other matters. 
There will still be time for the skillful teacher to take such 
excursions into the related history of continental Europe 
as to leave little that is essential to the development of 
such European institutions as are at all contributory to 
our present conditions. 

This will leave the fourth year for a course in American 
history paralleled by courses in the elements of civics and 
economics. If the fourth course is to be introduced, the 
ancient history would naturally be confined to the first 
year, followed by the history of mediaeval and modern 
Europe in the second year. It would seem desirable that 
considerable of the extra time thus allotted to the socio- 
logical group of courses should be given to a fuller study 
of the elements of civics and economics as furnishing the 
materials of history most vitally related to the individual's 
environment, both politically and industrially. Whatever 
may be the amount of work in these latter lines provided 
for in the program, a brief course in commercial or indus- 
trial geography should be given as a preliminary to it. In 



126 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

any case, all pupils should be advised to take at least three 
years of sociological work. 

A very important test of the efficiency of the work in 
historical subjects will be found in the inclination of the 
students who have completed their high school courses 
toward the further reading and study of history. No 
such thing as high grades in scholarship can ever con- 
done the lack of this inclination. 

V. Science 

The second consideration having regard to the individ- 
ual's relationship to his environment is to be found in 
nature. In secondary work this gives us the natural sci- 
ences. For the nature and properties of matter and the 
forces which are manifested in and through matter the 
courses usually offered are physics and chemistry. For 
the nature and properties of life, and how it is operative, 
through plants and animals, the biological sciences are 
presented. For the earth as the abode of plants, animals, 
and man, its surface conditions, its drainage, its atmos- 
phere, and its place in the solar system, the study of 
geography is included. All this again is impressional 
work, well calculated to stimulate thought and feeling in 
the mind of youth. Nature, with her sublime forces, has 
ever been man's first and greatest teacher. Here are the 
things elemental which take the mind away from self and 
make it possible to conceive of truth or discover error 
impersonally. The great difference between this field 
and that of history, as furnishing stimulative material in 
education, lies in the fact that this is elemental, pure, and 
unmixed with the personal element; while historical mat- 
ter, by its nature, carries with it the conventional, the 
traditional, — that which has been impressed upon the 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 127 

individual from infancy through contact with more mature 
minds. Then there are nature's infalHble laws as opposed 
to the devious tendencies of historical movement. Evi- 
dently, no special method of treatment of historical mate- 
rials can be made to serve the same purpose in the training 
of youth as wisely directed work in natural science. 

It is easy to see that here again the purpose is not to 
cover the entire field of scientific knowledge. Some knowl- 
edge other than that to be acquired through his own inves- 
tigations must certainly be given the youthful student; 
but this should be so managed as not to impair the real 
purpose of this particular element of training. What we 
should seek to accomplish is to preserve the open-minded 
attitude of the individual with regard to the further reve- 
lation of truth through nature as well as through human 
experience. To do this we must seek to secure and 
preserve the first contact of mind with nature in all her 
unconventional simplicity and purity. We would not be 
understood as underestimating the place of authority in 
education. The trouble is that we are prone to rely too 
exclusively upon what others have done or said to the neg- 
lect of that training which gives independence and initia- 
tive in both thought and experimentation. There are those 
who make of the natural sciences but another phase of 
historical training, teaching dogmatically the often imper- 
fect products of human thought with regard to nature's 
processes in matter or force or life. It is the attitude 
of mind through training that is the fundamental thing. 
Demonstrated final truths in the realm of nature are, after 
all, but few, comparatively, and easily acquired, if only the 
mind is alert. Of all things the bookish habit needs to be 
avoided here. 

Again, as in the case of the sociological courses, our 



128 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

starting point must be determined by the things accom- 
plished in the elementary school. If, as has been suggested 
by the Committee of Ten, the pupils have acquired the abil- 
ity to " record, classify, and reflect " on the results of their 
contact with nature, the way will be open enough for the 
beginnings of secondary science. As a matter of fact, 
however, it appears that some time must elapse before 
-' such results may be expected. For this reason it seems 
almost imperative that a course in general elementary 
nature work should introduce any attempt at high school 
science work. This course should acquaint the student 
with the more common phenomena in nature due to the 
operation of physical and biological laws on matter. There 
would be something of physics and chemistry, though 
nameless as such, something of geology and meteorology, 
and some of the more general aspects of botany and zool- 
ogy, as all these things mingle in the everyday natural 
environment. The first half year would suffice, and the 
work might all come under the title of geography or 
physiography.^ 

As to the sequence of the biological and physical sci- 
ences, much must depend upon the nature of the subjects 
I themselves. Biology brings the student into more direct, 
• easy, and continuous contact with nature. It is the more 
primitive science. For this reason it may well precede the 
physical sciences which are, perhaps, more inseparably 
connected with the arts of man. If the preliminary nature 
work has been well done, it would seem the logical thing to 
begin with botany, as this field of nature connects itself 
more palpably with the earth and the atmosphere. Zool- 

1 A very interesting course of this kind is given in the Oak Park, Illinois, high school. 
This course runs, on half time, through the first year, and is made a prerequisite to all other 
science work. It is a composite of certain elements from physics, chemistry, physiology, 
and botany. 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 



129 



ogy and human physiology would follow. The physical 
sciences might well be given as parallel courses covering 
two years ; or they may come in as separate courses, prob- 
ably with chemistry preceding, and physics, coordinated 
with mathematics, completing the program of science 
courses. Where an elementary course in nature work or 
geography has been given, the earth science proper may 
well continue through an entire year in the latter half of 
the high school program. 

For a small high school, unable to offer all the science 
courses, the following program will be found to be both 
logical and effective : — 

First or second year: physiography and botany carried as parallel 
courses, or at least partially so. 

Second or third year: zoology and human physiology blended into 
each other with no definite limit as to time except that zoology shall 
receive at least half the attention. 

Fourth year: physics. 

For a fully organized and equipped secondary school 
whose students come with the preparation of a good, 
modern elementary course, the following program of 
natural science work is suggested : — 

First year: botany. 

Second year: zoology, including human physiology; or a choice 
between zoology and physiology for a full year's work. 
Third year: physiography or chemistry for a full year. 
Third and fourth years : physics, or physics and chemistry. 

VI. Languages, including English and Foreign 

The remaining subjects of the program may readily be 
classed as expressional, although by no means exclusively 
so. We have found that in the elementary school what 
are known as the school arts — reading, writing, language, 



130 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION* 

drawing, number work, constructive work — are almost 
purely expressional. While we speak of these as being 
acquired in the years given to elementary training, yet 
there is a sense in which training in school arts is to pass 
over into the high school. The language work will here 
involve a fuller mastery of the art of expression in both 
reading and composition ; it will also include the mastery 
of the vocabulary and sentence structure of whatever 
foreign language may be undertaken. 

The mathematics work in the expressional sense will 
require that the student master new systems of symbols 
and their use in making computations. 

The drawing and art work will still demand close atten- 
tion to the use of media as well as the acquisition of skill 
of hand in expression. So, likewise, with music, construc- 
tive work in wood or iron, or any technical training, such 
as business courses, household science, etc. But, as has 
already been pointed out, all these activities will enter 
more or less into history, directly or through art and eco- 
nomic relations, or into science. A discussion of these 
groups more in detail will serve to reveal to us the part 
each subject is to play in the real process of secondary 
training. 

First of all is language, and of this quite the most funda- 
mental is the mother tongue. New words are constantly 
coming into the youth's vocabulary, and the formal expres- 
sion or spelling of these must be mastered. This work will 
occur incidentally as the words arise out of new fields of 
study. The mere art of writing, or penmanship, should 
need no further attention except where its technical use 
is involved, as in business courses. Training in the art of 
reading and speaking effectively should continue in con- 
nection with new forms of discourse which come up in the 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 



131 



study of literary types. That English training is weak, 
indeed, which makes no provision for the training to effec- 
tive reading as well as writing of the essay ; which pro- 
vides no training in the art of debate, or in the effective 
rendering of some of the world's great orations ; or even 
which neglects entirely the art involved in effective dra- 
matic reproduction, to say nothing of the art of reading in 
a pleasing manner an ordinary poem, or a chapter in a 
novel. These arts, along with the art of composition, play 
far too important a part in the activities of life and in the 
individual's power of appreciation of the world's great 
artists in these lines to be passed over too lightly in the 
years of secondary education. 

The study of literary classics as works of art, and with 
a view to the appreciation of their literary qualities, or the 
imparting of high ethical and aesthetical ideals, belongs 
distinctively to the sociological group of subjects already 
discussed under the proper head. 

The formal grammar and rhetoric deal more with lan- 
guage as a science, or with the principles of logic, and 
should find a place in the later, rather than the earlier, years 
of the high school program. The nature of the training 
which this period of life seems to demand would put little 
stress on the formal study of rhetoric. Its more element- 
ary presentation, begun in the elementary school, may well 
be continued in connection with the composition work and 
the study of the classics in the early years of the student's 
curriculum. Its more formal presentation belongs to the 
undergraduate years of the college. Somewhere in the last 
year of the work in English should come a good study of 
some such text on grammar as that by Earle in his " Simple 
Grammar of EngHsh." This would give an opportunity 
to introduce to the pupil the idea of logical thought as 



132 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

related to logical sentence structure, as well as something 
of the history of our language. 

A good four years' program of work in the study of 
the mother tongue and its literature would then be as 
follows : — 

First year: English composition, with the reading of classics, such as 
translations of the "Iliad" and "Odyssey," "Sohrab and Rustum," 
" Lays of Ancient Rome," " The Ancient Mariner," " Lady of the Lake," 
" Miles Standish," " Vision of Sir Launfal," " Julius Caesar," " Man with- 
out a Country," "Twice-told Tales," Franklin's "Autobiography," 
" Sketch Book," Lincoln's " Gettysburg Address " and " Inaugurals." 
At least four of the above list should be read critically in class with 
attention to their more prominent rhetorical features. 

Second year: English composition, with the reading of the " De Cover- 
ley Papers," " Silas Marner," " L' Allegro " and " II Penseroso," "Merchant 
of Venice," Irving's " Goldsmith," " The Deserted Village," " Vicar of 
Wakefield," "Mazeppa," "Prisoner of Chillon," " Lorna Doone," "Pil- 
grim's Progress," " Travels with a Donkey," " Sharp Eyes." The treat- 
ment should be similar to that of the first year with increased interest 
in the ethical and aesthetical problems presented. 

Third year: The history of English literature in connection with the 
history of England. The reading of the following classics outside of 
class : " Ivanhoe," "Tale of Two Cities," Macaulay's " Johnson," Carlyle's 
" Burns," " Henry Esmond," the Shakespearean dramas from English 
history, etc. A course in themes based on the history work but criti- 
cised grammatically and rhetorically. 

Fourth year: The reading of "Macbeth," "Gareth and Lynette," 
"Lancelot and Elaine," "Passing of Arthur," selections from Keats, 
Shelley, Wordsworth, and Browning, " The House of the Seven Gables," 
" Joan of Arc " and " English Mail Coach," " Heroes and Hero Wor- 
ship," Burke's " Conciliation," Emerson's " Essays." 

A three months' course, or its equivalent, in English grammar. 

Out of some such program of work in English the student 
should get at least a modicum of grace and accuracy in 
the use of the mother tongue ; he should also acquire some 
feeling for literature in its aesthetic and ethical aspects. 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 133 

But he should get more than these two things. In con- 
nection with his study of the epic he should learn what 
part this literary type has played in the evolution of the 
religious life and art of the race. Along with his study of 
Shakespeare should come an insight into the drama of dif- 
ferent ages and the part it has played in the fixing of race 
ideals. The study of lyric poetry should likewise call for 
a comparative view, as should the essay and the oration in 
prose. Something of the history and development of the 
novel as a dominant type of modern literature, together 
with some knowledge of plot mechanism and ability to dis- 
cern motives, should be a part of the results of high school 
study of literature. It seems unfortunate that a too close 
adherence to the mere chronology of literature often crowds 
out the possibility of any such comparative study of the 
great literary types. 

The foreign language work of the secondary school is 
chiefly concerned with the development of expressional 
power. Some attention will, of course, be given to the 
simpler literature of whatever language is studied, es- 
pecially in the third and fourth years ; but in the main the 
student's time will be taken in the mastery of the language 
as a means of expression or interpretation. What is to 
decide the matter as to which language shall be studied .'* 
First of all, we may consider the foreign language work as 
to what it rfeally offers to the student. If it is the Latin, 
one of the first considerations, perhaps, may be its direct 
relationship to the English because of the large number of 
words in the latter language derived from the Latin and 
because of its relationship to the grammar of the English 
language. In other respects the study of a classical tongue 
offers at least as much by way of comparative study as 
would a modern language. It leads, also, to a very in- 



134 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

teresting body of literature, representing the conceptions 
of politics, art, religion, and philosophy peculiar to the 
classic age. But unlike the modern languages it offers 
little or nothing in the field of present movements in human 
interests, especially of modern statecraft, or commercial 
and industrial development. 

The modern language, on the other hand, serves quite 
as well for comparative language study ; and in the case 
of the French is nearly equal to the Latin itself in acquaint- 
ing the student with English derivatives from the Latin. 

On the whole, it seems a fair summing up of the situa- 
tion to say that for ordinary language training which will 
not extend beyond the high school there is little room for 
preference as among the Latin, German, or French. For 
those who would prepare for literary pursuits, such as the 
law, the ministry, or teaching, or journalism, and also for 
the study of medicine, there seem to be certain reasons 
which favor the choice of Latin. Yet it does not follow 
that men may not succeed in any of these lines and still 
have no knowledge of Latin. On the other hand there is 
scarcely one of these callings whose followers would not be 
greatly strengthened by ready access to the current litera- 
ture of their fields in the German or the French. Certainly 
in the interests of the development of a broader race sym- 
pathy on the part of our youth it would seem that a knowl- 
edge of modern language is indispensable. For those who 
expect to enter the fields of science, business, or technical 
pursuits of any kind, there is little doubt as to preference 
for the modern languages. Here, then, is a case where a 
fair settlement seems possible only through a scheme of 
election, the chief difficulty in that event being found in 
the fact that the youth frequently does not know in time 
to enable him to elect intelligently. 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 135 

For ordinary purposes of education three years of work 
in foreign language would seem to be a fair allotment of 
time when all interests are considered. It is the custom 
with most schools, however, to offer four years. If three 
years are offered, the time would better be given to one 
language. In case four years are offered, two may be of 
Latin and two of a modern language, preferably German. 
The courses available in these subjects are too commonly 
known to call for any further outlining here. 

VII. Mathematics 

One of the oldest subjects, and yet one the adjustment 
of which in the secondary program of this country has 
never been quite satisfactory, is that of mathematics. This 
commonly embraces algebra, geometry, some arithmetic, 
and in some cases, trigonometry. For a long time the 
general scheme has been to take algebra at the beginning, 
followed, after a year and a half or two years of work, by 
plane and solid geometry. The arithmetic is usually a 
part of the commercial course. 

As a means of mental training geometry, especially, 
offers good materials for deductive reasoning. The care- 
ful analysis required in the solution of algebraic problems 
also furnishes fine mental discipline. The chief difficulty 
presented by these subjects lies in the fact that scarcely 
any of the problems ordinarily made use of for the fixing 
of the mathematical principles involved are in any way 
related to the other experiences of youth. In other words, 
the materials are, in a high degree, abstract. If some 
successful plan could be found by which more of the 
exercises could be related to concrete and well-known 
processes or phenomena in nature or the common indus- 
tries, the problem of training in secondary mathematics 



136 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

would be greatly simplified. Undoubtedly much would be 
gained if we could once overcome the force of tradition 
enough to enable us to carry the different phases of 
mathematical study as coordinates rather than in the order 
of sequence now customary. Geometry, as the more con- 
crete, should precede; but the algebra is too closely re- 
lated to it by nature and in application to be separated as 
we are now in the habit of doing. Then again both the 
algebra and geometry should be closely related to the 
science work, especially physics and physiography. They 
should also find application in connection with manual 
training, domestic art, and agriculture. The ordinary op- 
erations of arithmetic should be in constant use in con- 
nection with the corresponding processes in algebra in such 
a manner as to show the development of algebra from 
arithmetic. Some such correlation of the work in mathe- 
matics is in harmony with that attitude of mind on the part 
of youth which would ask insistently to know the uses of 
the work. At the same time it should be borne in mind 
that the development of the work in mathematics must 
also be toward its isolation. For, as soon as the question 
of use is satisfied, interest in the study for its own sake 
grows rapidly under normal conditions of adolescence ; 
therefore this phase of the subject must also have its place 
at the proper time. 

The kind of work above suggested really presupposes 
some elementary work in both geometry and algebra 
before the high school is reached. At least the literal 
expression of arithmetical quantities and the meaning and 
simple uses of the equation should be known, together 
with geometry in its numerical relations, and something of 
constructive and inventional geometry. 

In the case of algebra either the work should be con- 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 137 

fined to a very elementary course in the secondary school, 
or else enough mathematical training given, and in con- 
nection with other subjects, to give some idea of its appli- 
cations and importance in the everyday world. 

For schools where the former course is deemed advis- 
able for any reason, some such program as the following 
is suggested : — 

First year: Elements of plane geometry in its demonstrative phases, 
with parallel courses in elementary algebra and corresponding opera- 
tions in arithmetic. 

Second year: Plane geometry and algebra in parallel courses. 

Third year: Solid and spherical geometry, and arithmetic or 
trigonometry. 

To those students who look forward to technical training 
requiring mathematics, or to full collegiate courses, the 
following more complete program is suggested ; — 

First year: Plane geometry and algebra, with arithmetical operations. 

Second year: Geometry and algebra. 

Third year: Geometry and algebra, correlated with physics and physi- 
ography. 

Fourth year: Geometry and trigonometry, correlated with physics. 
Arithmetic in its appHcation to business. 

VIII. Music 

The important place which music has in our civic and 
religious life seems reason enough of itself for the contin- 
uation of musical instruction in the high school. Here 
the youth, at least those who have any musical *sense, 
should have opportunity to experience some of the finer 
possibilities of this mode of expression, either by actual 
participation or by sympathetic association with those who 
do participate. It is really unfortunate that so little is 
being done, as yet, to open up to our youth the range 



138 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of possibility for themselves both in the interpretation of 
masterpieces and in the undertaking- of the elements of 
musical composition. Of course there is some natural 
ground for this, on account of the rapid change of the 
voice during adolescence ; but much can be done, if due 
discrimination is used, without injury to pupils* voices. At 
least more effort might be made to acquaint our youth 
with the great composers and their masterpieces. In 
these days of the pianola such musical training is readily 
practicable. 

IX. Manual Arts 

We come now to the consideration of the manual arts, 
including drawing and art work, working in wood and iron, 
elementary agriculture, domestic arts, and business train- 
ing. It is unfortunate that the conservatism of tradition, 
or the lack of financial ability, or both, is so long keeping 
efficient work in these lines from our secondary schools. 

In this respect drawing and art work have fared best of 
all. The purpose is not to make artists of all in the 
secondary group. It is, indeed, to give opportunity for 
artists to discover themselves. But the chief purpose of 
such training is, first, to give to pupils some power of in- 
' terpretation of, and appreciation for, art ; second, to give 
some little skill in the use of various media as an aid to 
expression in connection with the sociological and science 
studies of the school, and in the ordinary activities of life. 
A well-organized and successfully conducted course in 
drawing and art work, in its proper relation to other activi- 
ties of the school, should leave the youth with a consider- 
ably wider range of possibilities in the realm of constructive 
and creative endeavor. The impulse to represent concep- 
tions of beauty is no less strong in the race than the desire 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 139 

to express utility. The latter may have preceded as a 
matter of necessity; but the former did not tarry long in 
the coming. 

From the nature of the case, it is not practicable to for- 
mulate any very definite program of work for this depart- 
ment. In general, we may say that the training should 
include something in each of constructive, decorative, and 
representative work in art. We may assume that the 
pupils come to this work with a fair knowledge of form, 
with pretty definite ideas of proportion and arrangement, 
and with some ability in the use of common media, and the 
adaptation of each to particular purposes. Most of this 
latter knowledge will still remain to be acquired, however. 
The constmctive work, and considerable of the decorative 
work, will find application in manual training and domestic 
arts, with possibly some hints at landscape designing. The 
work in representation should involve description, which 
will coordinate readily with work in natural history ; self- 
expression, i;vhich will include both interpretation and 
original expiession, the latter opening out into the realm 
of the ideal. Of course, imitative work will have its place, 
for art must cultivate the simpler language of truthfulness. 
But it would be a poorly constructed program which 
should leave no opportunity for the expression of higher and 
more universa. truths in the ideals of the individual self. 

Among the technical matters which should have consid- 
eration may be mentioned a knowledge of value, of color, 
and of compoation. As has been suggested, the work of 
this departmen: connects itself very closely with the manual 
arts, especially on the side of designing and decorative 
work. The mechanical drawing is, properly speaking, 
only a phase of the processes involved in the wood and 
iron work, and in agriculture and the domestic arts. 



140 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Probably no mere school training of the secondary stage 
can be expected to turn out skilled workmen in the practi- 
cal fields. What is more important than this, however, 
may be accomplished. The youth may be so trained in 
the correlate use of hand and eye, in the manipulation of 
tools and materials, as to give him a remarkable readiness 
of adaptability in any field of activity where such skill 
is required. After all, this is the paramount thing ; for in 
these times of rapid change, as discovery after discovery 
reveals new possibilities, those only are likely ti> survive 
who possess this power to adapt themselves tcj the ever 
varying conditions of industry. 

Besides this training of hand and eye, manual training 
work offers also an important adjunct to science training. 
The closer acquaintance with the properties (ji wood and 
iron furnishes an important element in the pipil's knowl- 
edge of physics and physical measurements, n(it to mention 
the contribution to botanical concepts through working 
with different kinds of wood. More important still, the 
contact is here again with things elemental and primitive, 
instead of conventional; and the mind is con^antly trained 
to observe certain inherent qualities of materials or tools 
which are to determine inexorably the succefs or failure of 
an experiment. In relation to economics, afeo, the work is 
important. It gives some idea of the nal nature and 
extent of the labor element in production ; ii arouses in the 
boy that unspeakable sense of joy becaise of mastery. 
The creative instinct may thus be awakenbd in him, and 
he may thus come to realize the coveted prjze of the artist, 
the only real antidote for the baneful eff ectsbf the drudgery 
of toil, on the one hand, and the lust for \^ealth or power, 
on the other. 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 141 

X. Agriculture and Domestic Science 

Similarly it may be seen that training in agriculture and 
in domestic science relates itself perhaps even more 
directly to science and economics. In fact, high school 
work in agriculture should be largely applied science work 
rather than an attempt at the art side. It is the scientific 
trend to thought about this ancient and fundamental indus- 
try which the world most needs to-day. So, likewise, in the 
case of domestic science : there are plenty of good house- 
keepers who know nothing of the sciences involved who 
can surpass in skill and adroitness much that the school 
may do on the side of household arts. The real work of, 
the school is to teach the science and show how its appli- , 
cation to household interests will give certainty for guess- 
work and the power to initiate where before every thii 
was by recipe or hard-and-fast rule. 

There is a great field, especially in our rural centers of 
population, for the teaching of agriculture as an applied 
science ; and there is a large place in every community for 
the teaching of domestic science. 

At least one year each, or the equivalent, of drawing and 
art work, wood working, metal working with hand tools, 
agricultural science, and domestic science should be offered 
in the secondary school. Of course this work will not all 
be taken by any one student. The arrangement may be 
for five hours a week through one year ; or better, perhaps, 
spread out over two or more years with fewer exercises 
per week. The time usually given to history, science, and 
expressional subjects other than manual arts may well be 
shortened a little to make room for these more active pur- 
suits. If the work is well organized and correlated, no 
loss will be felt by reason of the shortening. 



142 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

XI. Business Training 

What shall we say of business training ? Under other 
headings we have already given some consideration to the 
business side of mathematics, to industrial geography, and 
economics. What remains is the more technical phase of 
the training, as represented by practice in accounts, ste- 
nography, and typewriting. These subjects hardly belong 
in the same category with the manual arts. They are 
specialized forms of writing and composition, involving the 
mastery of special forms, symbols, and mechanical execu- 
tion. For their successful application, aside from mere 
skill of hand, they are dependent upon training in mathe- 
matics and elementary English, together with the broad, 
general knowledge acquired in the study of foreign lan- 
guage, history, and science. They may train to greater ac- 
curacy in the other arts mentioned ; they do not, however, 
contribute, in any important degree, to the mental power of 
the individual over and above what might come from other 
activities. Work in these lines should come near the close, 
rather than at the beginning, of the high school program. 
Two years may be offered, and might be counted as a fair 
equivalent for one complete year of English composition. 
In this case the details of composition should receive care- 
ful attention in connection with each article to be taken in 
shorthand and transcribed on the type machine. Perhaps 
a better arrangement would be to give the work in one year, 
allowing double periods as in the laboratory work of science. 

The program for commercial work may be arranged as 
follows : — 

Third year i Business arithmetic and practice in accounts. (A course 
in commercial geography should be offered in either the second or third 
year.) 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 143 

Fou7'th year : Training in stenography and typewriting, with a course 
in elementary economics. Where schools are large enough, it may also 
be found desirable to organize the work in history and science with 
special reference to business needs, thus making, with commercial 
mathematics, material enough for a course of four years. 

XII. The Trade School 

This much of purely technical training the high school 
may safely offer, perhaps, at our present stage of develop- 
ment. It seems unfortunate, however, that in a country 
so rich as ours, and yet so dependent upon the high intel- 
ligence of its citizenship as well as its labor, it should not 
be possible to provide ways and means for all the youth 
who are capable of doing so to get a good general second- 
ary education before entering upon any trade-school phase 
of education. In other words, if trade schools are to be 
established, let them, if possible, supplement the present 
secondary training of four years instead of supplanting 
any part of it. With such extension of high school work, 
and with continuation night schools for training in com- 
mercial pursuits and the various handicrafts, our system 
of education would be greatly strengthened. Of course 
this would require more money; but what expenditure 
could the state better justify } As matters now stand, it 
is undoubtedly best that our high schools go even farther 
in the direction of industrial work where teachers and 
equipment can be secured. For the many boys and girls 
who stop short of the high school to plunge into the work 
of life there should certainly be held out an inducement to 
take as thorough a training as possible along the line of 
their choosing. For these, full four-year courses in busi- 
ness, in manual training, in agriculture, or in domestic sci- 
ence should be provided. These courses should be as 
strongly technical as the age and scientific knowledge of 



144 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the pupils will permit. At the same time, however, there 
should be parallel courses in English and some modern 
languages, in history, especially industrial and economic, 
in geography, and, for very obvious reasons, in the pure 
sciences. 

Beyond and outside of the class here held in mind is 
• another group who have gotten all there is for them in an 
i academic training. They may have fallen short even be- 
fore completing the elementary course, but belong to the 
same class as to age and physical development. For these 
the more clearly defined trade-school type of education 
should be provided, along with a more thorough mastery 
of common English in the form of reading and composi- 
tion, and of the art of computation as applied to practical 
affairs. To this should be added instruction in the care 
of the body and in the plain duties of citizenship. Such 
a type of school is the Boys' Trades High School recently 
established as a regular day school in Philadelphia. 

XIII. Physical Training 

Along with manual arts, physical training is a very im- 
portant factor in secondary education, and one which has 
i not yet come to be recognized at its full value. Under this 
heading are included, (i) plays, games, and athletic sports, 
(2) gymnastic exercises, (3) military drill. The purpose 
of such training, under either form, is complex. It in- 
cludes hygienic and pathological considerations as well as 
the development of the bodily powers to their fullest and 
highest capabilities. The use of military drill is confined 
chiefly to special secondary schools for boys, commonly 
known as military schools. It has long been held an 
excellent training because of the fixing of regular habits, 
manliness of bearing, prompt obedience to the direction of 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 145 

superiors, and the development of a vigorous and healthful 
body under favorable conditions both as to care and exer- 
cise. Where such training is supplemented by wise use 
of the gymnasium and of athletic sports, including swim- 
ming, there is no doubt that great benefit may be derived 
from it. 

There are those, however, who object to the warlike as- 
sociations of such training. This very feature appeals 
strongly to the adolescent ; but the feeUng prevails among 
many, and is seemingly augmented from year to year, that 
a kind of physical training not suggestive of the more 
primitive attitude of warfare, but, rather, associated with 
peaceful pursuits and friendly contest, is the more desirable 
for American boys. 

The exercise of spontaneous play, of games, and ath- 
letic sports bears a relationship to normal development 
which is now very generally recognized. It is unfortu- 
nately true, however, that the school conditions are such in 
most of our cities and towns as to make slight provision for 
such exercise. As in the case of the manual arts, economic 
considerations, together with traditional conservatism, make 
it difficult to secure the ground and room space suitable 
for such play and sports. In very few cases, indeed, have 
we come far enough along to provide for the proper expert 
supervision of this phase of training in its hygienic and 
pathological aspects. Plays and games we have, often 
under most unfavorable conditions. Athletics, in recent 
years, have received much consideration. Few modern 
high schools, especially those assigned to separate build- 
ings of modern construction, are lacking some provision for 
athletic training, including the necessary baths. The gym- 
nasium and swimming pool, under competent direction, are 
more tardy in coming. 



146 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

For lack of attention to some such systematic training 
most of our youth are still leaving the secondary school 
with their powers for motor activity in many directions 
either dormant or practically atrophied. Such neglect 
must leave its effect not alone on the physical soundness 
of individuals, but also on the full rounding of their mental 
capacities ; for mental and motor activities meet at the very 
point where will takes possession of one's powers in order 
to sustain a struggle, a shock, or even the ravages of 
disease. 

XIV. Community Interests as affecting the Program 
OF Studies 

From the foregoing discussion it will appear that what 
is sometimes denominated local interest, and is considered 
an important factor in determining the program of studies 
for the schools of a particular community, has pretty largely 
to do with the group of activities which we have called the 
manual arts and business training. The one possible ex- 
ception to this is the foreign language work. 

Any careful observer of communities as related to this 
problem of education will doubtless agree, however, that 
scarcely any community represents only a single type of 
demand. There are communities largely commercial ; yet 
a considerable number will represent the handicraft indus- 
tries. Other communities are decidedly agricultural ; yet 
here, again, both commerce and handicraft are likely to be 
concerned. 

Evidently, then, a school of the people in such communi- 
ties must provide more than one type of program if all are 
to have an equal chance for training. Further, this is in 
harmony with our conception of social freedom. Every 
boy, we say, must have a chance to prepare himself, not to 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 147 

be what his ancestors have been, but for the calling for 
which his aptitudes and sympathies best fit him. In order 
to accomplish such a result our schools must offer a wide 
enough range of work so that all, and not one or two 
classes of youth, shall be appealed to. 

XV. The Elective System 

It is out of some recognition of this principle that the 
system of electives has come into very common use in 
American high schools. The adoption of the elective 
scheme in colleges and the rapidly broadening field of col- 
lege work have had something to do, also, in bringing 
about this arrangement of secondary programs. The prin- 
ciple involved in either case, however, is that of diversity 
of talents and interests among pupils. 

There are four methods of adjusting a scheme of elec- 
tives: (i) election by courses, (2) limited election by sub- 
jects, (3) a combination of (i) and (2), and (4) unlimited 
election by subjects. Election by courses is adopted by 
those who feel that the chief object of the pupil's choice 
is the general purpose to be sought in education. It is 
further argued that no mere youth can choose wisely as to 
the sequence of subjects, or in such a way as to preserve a 
balanced distribution of subjects with reference to the par- 
ticular results which they are expected to produce in the 
individual's training. 

Those who choose limited election by subjects act on the 
assumption that certain things must necessarily be pre- 
scribed, but that beyond this it does not matter much what 
subjects are chosen. In such cases, usually, the number 
of electives increases, with a consequent diminishing of 
prescriptions, from the first to the fourth year. 

The third form of election amounts practically to the 



148 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

second, except that the subjects are written out in 
groups. 

Unrestricted election by subjects throws down all bar- 
riers to choice so far as any authoritative prescription is 
concerned. Here the theory is that quite a noteworthy 
percentage of youth will be attracted by certain subjects, 
and if left free to choose, will find their way, finally, to a 
fairly rational course; while if some subjects were pre- 
scribed, they would be repelled by the mere idea of com- 
pulsion. Under wise counsel and direction on the part of 
the principal and teachers this scheme works out very 
well. 

The second type, or limited election by subjects, is by 
far the most common in practice, and where wisely used, 
seems to embody most of the advantages, without some of 
the disadvantages, of the other types of election. 

Of course there are certain limitations imposed by the 
nature of things, even where there is unrestricted election. 
The smaller high schools with few teachers cannot find the 
time for the extra recitation work which a number of elec- 
tives would require. Then, too, if the number of teachers is 
increased in a small school in order to overcome this diffi- 
culty, the relative cost of tuition is greatly increased. 
There are some subjects which must be taken consecu- 
tively ; a pupil cannot elect one of these, therefore, without 
first having taken its prerequisite. A scarcity of compe- 
tent teachers also makes election next to impossible in 
many cases where the financial ability of the district does 
not measure up to the law of supply and demand. 

The present status of educational sentiment in regard to 
the application of the principle of election in secondary 
schools may be summed up in the following statement of 
the arguments, pro and con : — 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 149 

Arguments in favor of election : — 

(i) It is in harmony with the American ideal of freedom. 

(2) It gives an opportunity for determining what the people want in 
education. 

(3) It puts the high school in touch with more young people who 
need high school training. 

(4) It increases the attendance in high schools. 

(5) By putting students in a better attitude towards their work it 
produces a better spirit in the school and lessens the difficulties of 
discipline. 

(6) It limits the amount of work of the individual, thus aiding in 
securing thoroughness of work. 

(7) It results in better teaching, 

(a) By causing closer study of individual pupils by teachers. 
(d) By eliminating weak teachers. 

(8) The widening scope of college training demands the elective 
system in preparatory schools. 

Arguments opposed to election : — 

(i) Pupils of high school age lack knowledge sufficient to enable 
them to choose wisely. 

(2) Children should become accustomed to doing disagreeable 
things. 

(3) It increases the difficulties of administration. 

(4) It increases the relative cost of the high school. 

(5) It endangers the interests of the state by giving free rein to 
individualism. 

(6) It leads to too close attention to professional interests in secon- 
dary schools. 

In the early part of this chapter we have discussed 
school activities as related to the mental and motor pro- 
cesses involved and to the right social adjustment of the 
individual. If we take these considerations as our philo- 
sophical basis for determining the balanced condition of 
the curriculum which any individual may elect, it is evident 
enough that the aim should be to direct the pupils' interests 



I50 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

along such lines as shall save him from a one-sided and 
purposeless training. A moment's reflection, however, will 
show us the comparative safety of a rather wide range of 
election. The thing which is most likely to appeal to 
pupils of all classes is one or the other of the manual arts. 
No matter which one is chosen, however, it will lead, 
inevitably, first of all, to science and history; it will also 
lead just as certainly to at least language and mathe- 
matics. When, therefore, we consider that the chief pur- 
pose of this freedom is to ensnare the interest of those who 
come purposeless to the secondary school, the comparative 
safety of such a scheme, under wise direction, seems appar- 
ent enough. 

XVI. The Question of Sex 

The question of sex in secondary education we have 
purposely left out of consideration here. This is a prob- 
lem to be discussed under a different head, and in that 
connection the differences in the curricula for boys and 
for girls will receive consideration. 

XVII. Suggested Types of Programs 

On the basis of the programs for the various subjects 
we have considered, and in the light of what has been said 
as to electives preserving the balance between mental 
and motor activities and social adjustment, let us now 
proceed to construct a general program for secondary 
schools. First we may consider the needs of smaller high 
schools employing but few teachers, but still able to offer 
four years of work. No school should undertake such a 
course where fewer than three teachers give full time to 
the regular work of instruction, not including special tech- 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 151 

nical departments. For this type of school the following 
program is suggested : — 

First year: — 

Geometry and algebra with arithmetical operations, 5 days per 

week. 
English composition and classics, 4 days. 
Ancient history, 3 days. 
Manual training, 3 days. 
Drawing and art work, 3 days. 
Music at least i day per week. 
Physical training. 

Note. — The girls would all have drawing and art work but not 
manual training. The boys should do part of their drawing in con- 
nection with manual training. 

Second year: — 

Plane geometry and algebra, 5 days. 

English composition and classics, 4 days. 

Zoology and physiology, 4 days. 

Foreign language (Latin or German), 5 days. 

Manual training or elementary agriculture, 3 days. 

Drawing and art work, 3 days. 

Music at least i day. 

Physical training. 

Third year: — 

Geometry and algebra with physics, 5 days. 

English history and history of English literature with themes and 

outside reading of historical classics, 4 days. 
Chemistry or physiography, 4 days. 
Manual training or elementary agriculture, 3 days. 
Domestic arts, 3 days. 
Music at least i day. 
Physical training. 

Note. — The work in drawing and art will here become merged in 
the other manual arts work except for those with special artistic tenden- 
cies who may go on with advanced work. 



152 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Fourth year: — 

Geometry and either arithmetic or trigonometry, with physics, 

5 days. 
English classics and themes, with three months of grammar, 5 days. 
Foreign language, 5 days. 

American history, civics, and elements of economics, 5 days. 
Domestic arts, 2 days. 
Business training, 2 days. 
Music. 
Physical training. 

In schools where as many as four or five teachers are 
employed some elections may be permitted in the last 
three years, such as a choice of languages and a choice 
between a full year of zoology or physiology in the second 
year ; a choice between two foreign languages and between 
chemistry and physiography the third year ; a choice be- 
tween two foreign languages and the offering of a full year 
of business training in the fourth year. 

The above scheme, developed to fuller possibilities for 
a fully organized and larger high school, might be arranged 
as follows : — 

First year: — 

English : Composition and classics. 

Mathematics: Plane geometry, and algebra, with operations in 

arithmetic. 
Latin. 
German. 
History, ancient. 
Science, elementary, and botany. 
Manual training. 
Drawing and art work. 
Music. 
Physical training. 

Second year : — 

English : Composition and rhetoric, with classics. 
Mathematics : Geometry and algebra. 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 153 

Latin. 

German. 

History, European. 

Science : Zoology or physiology, or both. 

Manual training. 

Elementary agriculture. 

Drawing and art work. 

Music. 

Physical training. 

Third year : — 

English : History of literature and classics^ with theme work and 

rhetorical work. 
Mathematics : Geometry and algebra. 
Latin. 

German or French or Spanish. 
History, English. 
Commercial geography. 
Science : Physiography or chemistry, physics. 
Business training. 
Manual training. 
Elementary agriculture. 
Domestic arts. 
Music. 
Physical training. 

Fourth year : — 

English : Classics, with theme work and rhetoricals, grammar. 
Mathematics: Geometry with trigonometry or business arith- 
metic. 
Latin. 

German or French or Spanish. 
History, American. 
Civics and economics. 
Science, physics. 
Business training. 
Elementary agriculture. 
Domestic arts. 
Music. 
Physical training. 



154 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The above scheme will furnish work enough, both intel- 
lectual and motor, for any type of school. No attempt is 
made here to determine the extent of election. In mak- 
ing prescriptions and in fixing limits as to the amount of 
work to be carried, care should be taken to observe a 
proper balance among the different types of work, so as to 
insure a reasonable equilibrium in the training of the in- 
dividual pupil toward the attainment of right ends in 
education. In arranging to carry into effect any such 
scheme of studies as the above, the force of what has been 
said in regard to departmental organization in the latter 
part of Chapter VI should become operative. It cannot 
be too strongly impressed that outside of a few general 
lines of activity the success of a program of studies is 
more dependent upon those forces of administration and 
teaching through which the various lines of work are to 
find presentation than upon the content of the program 
itself. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. To what extent^does the present teaching of history in public 
schools foster and develop true patriotism ? 

2. An examination into the best modern courses in history for ele- 
mentary schools. 

3. An investigation of the actual amount of history training given 
the individual pupil in our larger high schools. 

4. A study of the relationship which history bears to the develop- 
ment of other secondary subjects. 

5. To what extent does the prevalent teaching of the natural sci- 
ences in secondary schools tend to secure the ends for which it is 
proposed to teach science ? 

6. A study of the relationship of natural science to other high 
school subjects. 

7. Does the average pupil leave high school with a love for good 
literature ? 



THE PROGRAM OF STUDIES 155 

8. An investigation of the extent to which the literature of the 
Latin is an appreciable part of the study of it in high schools. 

9. An investigation of the German method of treating secondary 
mathematics. 

10. An investigation of the voice problem as related to high school 
training in vocal music. 

11. An inquiry into the provisions made in high school drawing and 
art courses for the fostering of real artistic ability. 

12. The relation of manual training to other secondary subjects. 
Does it tend to detract from essential work in other lines ? 

13. A study of the working of the elective system in the high 
schools of Boston, Galesburg, and Ithaca. 

14. An investigation of the results obtained by alternation of sub- 
jects in high school programs. 

References. — "A Modern School" and "Educational Aims and Educational 
Values," Hanus ; " Principles of Secondary Education," De Garmo ; " The Educa- 
tive Process," Bagley; "Principles of Class Teaching," Findlay, Chapter XI; 
" Principles and Methods of Teaching," Welton ; Report of the Committee of Ten ; 
Report of the Committee of Seven on the Study of History in Schools ; " The Teach- 
ing of History and Civics," Bourne ; " The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics," 
Smith and Hall ; " The Teaching of Biology," Lloyd and Bigelow ; " The Teach- 
ing of English," Chubb, also Carpenter, Baker, and Scott ; " The Teaching of Latin 
and Greek," Bennett and Bristol ; " The Teaching of Mathematics," La Grange ; 
" The Teaching of Mathematics," Young ; " Teaching of Elementary Mathematics," 
D. E. Smith; Yearbooks, Council of Supervisors of the Manual Arts, 1901-1907; 
Report of the Galesburg, Illinois, High School, 1907-1908 ; " The Meaning of the 
Movement for the Reform of Science Teaching," C. R.Mann, Educational Review, 
34 : 13-25 ; Nevi^ York State Science Teachers' Association, Proceedings, 1906 ; 
" What Agricultural Education means To-day," Channing, Forum, 87 : 785-797 ; 
" Agricultural Education," Jevv^ell, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 2, 1907 ; 
" Syllabus for Secondary Schools ; Agriculture," Education Department, Albany, 
New York ; " Teaching of Agriculture in the Schools of France and Belgium," U. S. 
Commissioner of Education, Report, 1905, i: 87-96; "Some Modern Ideas about 
Women's Education," Creighton, Nineteenth Century, 62 : 578-586 ; " School Train- 
ing for the Home Duties of Women," Board of Education, Great Britain, Parts; 
Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. 19 ; " Classical Studies," Page, Edu- 
cational Review, 34 : 144-150 ; " Humanistic vs. Realistic Education," Paulsen, Edu- 
cational Review, 33 : 36-45 ; " The Place of Modern Languages in the Secondary 
Curriculum," Benson, Journal of Education (London), n.s., 28 : 117-121; " Indus- 
trial Training for Women," Marshall, Bulletin 4, National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education. 



CHAPTER VIII 

ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 

I. Early Conditions and Methods 

In the earlier stages of secondary school development 
in this country it was customary to ignore the fact that 
in the gradual unfolding of individual qualities in the 
transition from childhood to youth a peculiar pedagogical 
crisis is reached in the high school. As a consequence 
the middle school period has too frequently been used as 
a sort of buffer between college influences and methods 
on the one hand and the usages of the elementary school 
on the other. This has varied with the source of teachers. 
Those trained in the college have been accustomed to en- 
ter upon the work of the academy or high school about 
where they left off in their college courses as far as 
method of treatment both of materials and pupils is con- 
cerned. Later another class of teachers have found their 
way into many American high schools, teachers who have 
arrived there by some other than the college route. Usu- 
ally these have moved up, by force of circumstances and 
the rapid growth of communities, from the elementary 
school to the high school grades. These teachers have 
usually carried into the high school the same methods of 
work and the same standards of conduct that they were 
accustomed to employ in dealing with younger children. 
Between these two classes of teachers and the resulting 

156 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 157 

compromise have our high schools been determined, 
until now, as to the response they have offered to the 
demands of the pushing, crowding, pulsating forces strug- 
gling up and seeking expression, satisfaction, and direction 
in the lives of youth. Quite recently, however, we find 
considerable stress laid upon the importance of physio- 
logical and psychological conditions due to the particular 
period of development represented in the secondary group. 

II. Hall's "Adolescence" 

By far the most exhaustive presentation of this prob- 
lem has been given us by President G. Stanley Hall in 
his book on "Adolescence." The following quotation 
will probably serve as well as anything to present the real 
basis of the problem as Dr. Hall sees it : " Adolescence is 
a new birth, for the higher and more completely human 
traits are now born. . . . The youth is more objective 
than subjective, and only if his lust to know nature and 
life is starved does his mind trouble him by ingrowing. 
There are new repulsions felt toward home and school, 
and truancy and runaways abound. The social instincts 
undergo sudden unfoldment and the new life of love 
awakens. It is the age of sentiment and of religion, of 
rapid fluctuation of mood, and the world seems strange 
and new. Interest in adult life and in vocations develops. 
Youth awakens to a new world and understands neither it 
nor himself. The whole future of Ufe depends on how 
the new powers now given suddenly and in profusion] are 
husbanded and directed. Character and personality are 
taking form, but everything is plastic. Self-feeling and 
ambition are increased, and every trait and faculty is 
liable to exaggeration and excess. It is all a marvelous 
new birth, and those who believe that nothing is so worthy 



158 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of love, reverence, and service as the body and soul of 
youth, and who hold that the best test of every human 
institution is how much it contributes to bring youth to 
the ever fullest possible development, may well review 
themselves and the civilization in which we live to see 
how far it satisfies this supreme test." 

We are not left in doubt as to the author's point of 
view. He sets the problem before us in bold outlines. 
All thoughtful people who have had anything to do with 
the training of youth, and few have not, readily recog- 
nize familiar characteristics of the problems they have 
met as they follow the pages of President Hall's great 
book. Not all, however, can feel the problem so intensely 
as he. His work has been subjected to much criticism, 
both favorable and adverse. While there are certain 
principles laid down upon which we must all agree, yet 
there are those who feel that the stress put upon the 
great extent of change attributed to this period is rather 
in advance of sufficiently reliable data to warrant such 
conclusions. 

III. Further Analysis of Adolescence 

The physiological facts in regard to growth, the develop- 
ment of organs and functions hitherto dormant or embry- 
onic, have long been subjects for consideration. The 
effects of this rapid evolving of nascent powers have been 
discussed since men first began to consider seriously a 
proper course of training for youth. The problem of 
fatigue in education, the question of hygienic care as to 
diet, exercise, bathing, sleep, as related to the normal 
development of the bodily powers during this period, all 
belong with the classics of modern education. The rela- 
tion of all these physiological facts to the problem of Intel- 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 159 

lectual and moral awakening and growth is a matter of more 
recent consideration. It is indeed fortunate that our atten- 
tion has been called thus forcibly to this phase of the 
problem. It is no longer a question simply of concern for 
the body, although even this concern is made more appar- 
ently necessary. Along with a care for the physical 
conditions comes an equally insistent and closely related 
call for care of the mental conditions. 

With the rapid bodily development, the maturing to 
functions hitherto dormant, there come correspondingly 
new feelings, emotions, desires, thoughts as to the meaning 
of life. We may no longer content ourselves with the 
proper consideration of needs merely physical. While 
we may well be doubly careful of proper hygienic condi- 
tions, we are also now concerned that the mental environ- 
ment be satisfactory. There must be healthful associates, 
healthful books, healthful home life. 

The rapid physical evolution of the boy from knickerbock- 
ers to long pants brings with it not only a new bodily experi- 
ence, but its mental accompaniment as well; the result is 
awkwardness, both in actual condition and in feeling. The 
development of self-consciousness and oversensitiveness 
often leads to efforts to appear otherwise; the result is 
sometimes a defiant attitude or a tendency to appear smart. 
A natural physical and mental restlessness leads to a love 
for excitement and constant change of scene or of experi- 
ences. The emotions become more intense ; love, hate, the 
vengeful spirit, noble aspirations, impulses to daring and 
rashness, all, fitfully and for brief periods, sweep the soul 
with their fervid waves. There are soul strivings, a widen- 
ing of interest in human affairs, youthful dreams. In the 
swift change the sense of responsibility often wavers or is 
lost entirely for the time being. Now a love for roaming 



i6o HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

possesses the youthful soul; or a longing for solitude in 
which to dream and dream. 

Altogether it is a season of turmoil, varying in intensity 
with different individuals. In many self-mastery is so 
strong as hardly to permit any outward sign of the tempest 
within ; with some the condition verges upon insanity or 
actually becomes such temporarily. Undoubtedly this is 
a critical period in the process of education, and requires 
thoughtful and sympathetic treatment. It is probably true, 
also, that one of the vitally important elements in the prob- 
lem is due to the phenomenon of sex. To meet these 
problems as they present themselves requires the greatest 
possible amount of individual attention for the secondary 
pupil. His curriculum should be somewhat flexible, in 
order to adjust itself to the emergencies of this period of 
stress if he is to be kept in school and successfully at work. 

The real difficulty in the situation is that we are not yet 
supplied with the proper data for the solution of the 
problem. True, we are tolerably familiar with the more 
general and obvious aspects of the case ; but even here we 
are liable to take too much for granted. In the matter of 
sex, for instance, and the part it is believed to play, 
Thorndike has pointed out that we are not yet in a posi- 
tion to affirm very much. His conclusions thus far seem 
to point to a much smaller influence from this cause than 
has usually been supposed.^ 

Dewey, in his discussions of mental development,^ calls 
attention to the gradual unfoldment which proceeds from 
infancy throughout the period of individual growth. True, 
the evolution is somewhat accelerated when pubescence is 
reached ; but the change is nevertheless progressive rather 

1 See page 107, " Educational Psychology," Thorndike. 
* " Mental Development, — Fourth Stage," Dewey. 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION i6l 

than spasmodic. It represents a new birth, or, as Dewey 
puts it, "it is essentially an epoch of reconstruction, a 
making over." But in stating this fact the same writer 
would remind us that where the development lower down 
has been regular and full at each point, this later change 
will also be explained as a part of an underlying continuity 
of development. 

In this, as in all points of the scientific study of educa- 
tional problems, we need patiently to accumulate facts. 
We should study adolescence, as Dr. Burnham has put it, 
" scientifically from the standpoints of physiology, anthro- 
pology, neurology, psychology, and in its ethical, social, 
and pedagogical relations." ^ Meantime we must be content 
to deal with the problems as they appear and in the light 
of such knowledge as we possess. 

It seems evident, then, that we should seek to adjust the 
materials and methods of education to the observed needs 
and tendencies of youth. Indeed, it may very properly be 
said that the entire program of studies should be adjusted, 
as far as this is possible in a general way, to the peculiar 
treatment which the characteristics of adolescence require. 
No administrative plan for high schools can ignore this 
phase of the work without danger of running into trouble. 

The intention is not to convey the meaning that we here 
favor the reorganization of the American high school on a 
plan something like that of the German secondary schools. 
Such contentions are chiefly for those who think of the 
high school as a distinct institution rather than a part of 
the common school system. This difference has been 
alluded to in the third chapter. Most superintendents 
know that the adolescent pupil is distributed in varying 
numbers throughout the elementary school. The super- 

1 See article on " The Study of Adolescence," Burnham, Ped. Sem.^ i: 175. 



i62 HIGH SGHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

intendent of schools of the city of New York has given 
us some definite figures on this point in his report for 1906. 
This view is also supported by Crampton as a result of his 
investigations with regard to variations in the time of 
adolescence.^ Most colleges find that the adolescent, while 
still at a decidedly verdant stage of development, frequently 
appears among the ranks of college students. The fact 
still remains, however, that the most decided change, both 
physical and psychological, occurs in the majority of indi- 
viduals at an age corresponding very nearly to the age for 
entrance to the high school. 

Some slight modification of the method of organization 
and presentation of the materials of education should un- 
doubtedly come to the two or three grades immediately 
below the high school. There is nothing essential to our 
present general grouping of the grades to prevent this. 

IV. The Readjustment Needed 

It is no doubt true that one of the chief reasons for the 
success of manual arts and business training courses as a 
means of holding pupils in school is the peculiar manner 
in which these things minister to the desires and aspira- 
tions of youth. A certain belief is becoming current, 
however, that something more is needed in the way of 
readjustment in the work of the high school than merely 
to add new subjects to the program of studies. Probably 
few would now question the need of more attention to the 
motor side of education than was formerly given in the 
schools. This is a question of social and industrial change. 
The passing of the old-fashioned home industries and the 
apprentice system has left us no other choice than to sup- 
ply their places by the introduction of the elemental motor 

1 For an account of this see Ped, Sem.y Vol. 15. 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 163 

activities into the school. These we must adjust properly 
in relationship to other activities of the school. Nor are 
we wrong in seeking to establish such a grouping and se- 
quence of materials as will call forth the varied possibilities 
of the different individual types represented in any group 
of boys and girls. 

But the real thing we need to accomplish is a readjusted 
treatment of old materials. We need to get at the moods 
and aspirations of this budding manhood and womanhood. 
We need to kindle a fire of enthusiasm about our work in 
history and science, in English and foreign language, and 
in mathematics. The motor activities may help us to do 
this. Not that we are to make high school work easier, 
but that we shall find for the boy or girl that motive which 
shall make the doing even of hard things easy. This, after 
all, is the power which educates. It matters not nearly 
so much what a boy studies as that he really studies 
something. 

In the old pioneer days of western rural schools the boy 
who was so inspired by his teacher as to enable him to 
"cipher" through his Ray's Higher Arithmetic was, by so 
doing, gaining a large share of liberal education. It is 
such boys that have done much toward making the great 
West what it is. This is not true simply because the 
training was arithmetic, although that work did involve 
several from that group of activities which go to develop 
the mind, while the farm furnished the manual training. 
But other subjects, pursued with an equally strong motive 
and as closely related to the realities of life, might have 
served as well. 

The present working of the elective system has many 
suggestive lessons along this line for the close observer. 
In one school we may find the enthusiasm confined chiefly 



i64 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

to mathematics ; in another the hour for recitation in alge- 
bra or geometry is looked forward to with a feeling of 
dread. Here we see a class fairly reveling in the beauty 
and the wisdom, the wit and the tragedy of Shakespearean 
drama ; at the next school the class drags drearily through 
one scene after another of the " Merchant of Venice," sigh- 
ing out their relief at the sound of the electric gong call- 
ing them to a respite. Even Greek, now almost obsolete 
as a high school subject, draws to itself a large group in a 
certain high school where it is given its chance among the 
electives. Draws to itself } Yes, as it is there presented. 
Ah, the teacher's true art ! Who has not heard the com- 
plaint of some individual in a group of high school teach- 
ers as he bewailed the fact that the students give all their 
time to the preparation of work for Miss So-and-So? But 
let no one in authority interfere. Rather let him who 
complains give thanks that by this token he is permitted, 
even afar off, to witness the awakening of minds which 
have heard the call to high endeavor and have caught its 
spirit from the lips of a living teacher. 

The old German adage — "If you would make a thing 
ring, you must strike it" — is appHcable to the work of 
teaching. Boys, especially at the adolescent period, often 
get the idea that school work is not real and drop out into 
the activities of the world. As a matter of fact, and as 
they often discover later, there is nothing more real than 
the work of the school. If it seems different, it is because 
nothing has struck the boys. As far as possible the work 
of the school should be so readjusted as to make its reality 
in relation to life more readily felt. Not only is the pro- 
gram of studies a matter of concern, but the teachers em- 
ployed are also a very important factor. High school 
authorities are recognizing this more and more. There is 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 165 

a keenly felt need for a strong masculine element in the 
teaching force. On this account the rapid decrease in the 
number of good men available as instructors in our high 
schools is a matter of great concern. 

V. Coeducation 

The problems of adolescence bring us face to face with 
the problem of coeducation, especially in secondary 
schools. When all the arguments are considered, pro and 
con, the advantage seems still to be with coeducation 
rather than against it. Among the reasons advanced for 
segregation of the sexes during at least a part of the ado- 
lescent period are the following: i. The differences in 
temperament and mental inclination make it desirable that 
boys and girls be trained apart. 2. The inherent differ- 
ences in social and industrial interests call for correspond- 
ing difference in training. 3. During the years of most 
rapid sexual development boys and girls instinctively shun 
each other at times. 4. Too much association at this 
period, with a strong spirit of camaraderie, takes away 
much of the real charm and freshness which ought to 
characterize the attitude of youth toward the opposite 
sex. 

Those who favor coeducation for secondary schools pre- 
sent the following as the most reasonable grounds for their 
contention : i . The mingHng of the sexes in the high school 
tends to give a stronger and more proper conception of the 
amenities of life, thus diminishing the difficulties of disci- 
pline. 2. Coeducation results in a better rounded intellec- 
tual development for both boys and girls. 3. It adds to 
the moral tone of the school. 4. It is an economic neces- 
sity. 5. It is further held that differences in mental incli- 
nation and habits of thought are largely the results of the 



i66 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

past education and social condition of the female as com- 
pared with the male, and that coeducation tends to remove 
a difference which is not inherent, thus placing the two 
sexes on a fairer basis of equality. To state this in another 
form, coeducation is more truly democratic. 

Naturally coeducation has an advantage in the fact 
that under the administration of such a system of training 
woman has greatly advanced, as compared with her pre- 
vious condition. This is claimed to be more especially 
true in America where coeducation is most common. It 
has its greatest advantage on the side of economic neces- 
sity, at least so far as past and present conditions are con- 
cerned. The undertaking involved in any attempt to 
duplicate the high schools of our cities at this particular 
stage of our development is too stupendous to receive any 
present serious consideration. Think of a situation like 
that of Louisville, Kentucky, for instance, as a rather ex- 
treme illustration of the difficulties involved. Louisville 
already has segregation ; and under the laws of Kentucky 
so vividly before our minds in connection with the Berea 
College case, Louisville, to be both law-abiding and consist- 
ent, must maintain four high schools entirely distinct in 
organization, two for boys of the different races, and two 
for girls. 

Here again, as in the study of adolescence, we are lack- 
ing sufficient data. Thus far we have been content to 
draw our conclusions chiefly from the most obvious aspects 
of the two types of schools as they exist. We have in this 
country excellent opportunities for a comparative study of 
the merits of coeducation and segregation in high schools. 
In most of the cities of the East and South segregation is 
practiced, while in the West, very generally, coeducational 
schools prevail. In some eastern cities, as in Boston and 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 167 

New York, coeducational and segregated schools exist side 
by side. 

By the inauguration of some carefully conducted inves- 
tigations along the lines of those differences of opinion 
which cause the variations in practice we might, in time, 
secure enough data on which to establish a reasonably 
scientific judgment./ 

VI . The Englewood Experiment 

Recently an experiment has been started by Principal 
Armstrong of the Englewood High School, Chicago, which 
is based on the idea that there are certain lines of work 
where the nature of the sexes calls for segregation, while 
in the main the work may still be in common. At any 
rate, the sexes may safely be kept together except in reci- 
tation work, and in that even in some subjects. 

In his advocacy of the plan Mr. Armstrong speaks of 
the school as presenting the grouping of boys and girls 
together as in the home. Just as in that case they would 
be more or less segregated in their occupations, so they 
may naturally be in the school. Not only are there physi- 
cal differences as to development, size, and bodily endur- 
ance, but there are also different purposes in life. The 
contention is that these differences in purpose are suffi- 
cient grounds of themselves to call for some marked 
differentiation in their school training even in the same 
subjects. 

The experiment was begun by segregating the pupils 
of a midyear class. The subjects chosen for the test were 
Latin, German, physical geography, algebra, and English. 
Men were placed in charge of the boys in most cases and 
women teachers in charge of the girls* classes. A slight 
variation of this gave an added variation to the test. The 



i68 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

results as testified to by the teachers were found to be 
mainly advantageous to both boys and girls. This experi- 
ment is still being carried on. 

Mr. Armstrong expresses the belief that to maintain 
such a scheme of partial segregation successfully would 
require stronger teachers in several particulars than the 
coeducational plan. He looks upon this method of ad- 
justment of high school work as simply another step in 
the gradation of the school. By adjusting the presenta- 
tion of a subject to the interests and life purposes of a 
given group it is found to be possible to make much 
greater headway.^ 

VII. Natural Segregation 

The last argument agrees with the conclusions of Julius 
Sachs,^ who undertakes to show that the throwing to- 
gether of boys and girls in the high school tends to 
weaken the effort of the boys on account of the necessary 
adjustments in the work of a given subject in order to 
adapt it to the interests and purposes of both girls and 
boys. He further points out as another inevitable result 
that many girls are thus led to overtax their physical 
strength. 

President Van Hise has clearly pointed out the tendency 
toward a natural segregation which takes place in universi- 
ties. This comes about, first, through the differentiation of 
university departments along the lines of vocation, thus 
inevitably throwing the boys and girls into distinct groups. 
Second, it results from the rush of girls to certain courses, 
especially literary courses, often to the necessary exclusion 
of boys from several sections of those taking the subjects. 

The introduction of electives and industrial subjects 

* See School Review ^ 14 : 726 738. 2 gee Educational Review, 33 : 504-520. 



ADOLESCENCE AND COEDUCATION 169 

into high school programs is producing a segregation 
similar to that going on in the universities. It seems not 
unlikely that the whole matter may ultimately find a kind 
of automatic adjustment in this way. The friends of 
this movement argue that the work in certain lines, as in 
manual arts, physical science, some of the mathematics, 
etc., must be handled differently with boys than with 
girls ; while the work in the languages, literature, and 
history may be treated alike for both. The Englewood 
experiment is thus all the more interesting, and its further 
outcome will be awaited with much interest as calculated 
to throw some light on a very important administrative 
problem. 

The results of a somewhat extended observation of sec- 
ondary schools by the author in a practical way would 
seem to emphasize the need of differentiating the work in 
some courses on account of sex. The applications of 
mathematics, physical and biological sciences, and the 
manual arts, come plainly within this consideration. The 
same is doubtless true of civics and economics. There is 
a certain interest in civil affairs and in economic principles 
which centers in the home and should be seen by our girls 
more from the mother and housewife point of view. All 
will certainly agree that physical training should be care- 
fully adapted to the differing needs of boys and girls. 
Even in the study of English, the rhetorical work and 
some of the types of classics to be studied may well be 
different. With this much granted and provided for, may 
not the remaining portions of the high school work still be 
done on a coeducational basis with much of advantage 
and a minimum of disadvantage to all } Our answer to 
this question must wait upon carefully observed experi- 
mentation. 



170 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

X. An investigation of the effect on high schools of the decrease in 
the proportionate number of male teachers. 

2. A study of the results of separate schools for the sexes in this 
country and in Europe. 

3. A study of the partial segregation scheme of the Englewood High 
School. 

References. — "Adolescence," G. Stanley Hall, also a later and briefer volume 
entitled " Youth, its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene " ; Proceedings of the N. E. A., 
1903, pp. 297 and 446; " Physical Nature of the Child," Rowe; 50th An. Vol. 
N. E, A., 1906, pp. 58-72 ; " Effect of High School Work upon Girls during 
Adolescence," Kennedy, Ped. Sem., 3 : 469 ; " The Psychology and Pedagogy of 
Adolescence," Lancaster, Ped. Sent., 5 : 61-128 ; " Some Criminal Tendencies of 
Boyhood : A Study in Adolescence," Swift, Ped. Sent., 8 : 65-91 ; " The Study 
of Adolescence," Burnham, Ped. Sem., 1 : 174-195 ; " Coeducation of the Sexes in 
the United States," Commissioner of Education's Report, 1900-1901, Vol. H, 
pp. 1217-1315 ; " Educational Psychology," Thorndike, Chapters 10-15 ; " Limited 
Segregation," J. E. Armstrong, School Review, 14 : 726-738 ; " Educational Tend- 
encies in State Universities," Van Hise, Educational Review, 34 : 504-520 ; " Coedu- 
cation in the United States," Julius Sachs, Educational Review, 33 : 298-305. 



CHAPTER IX 

DISCIPLINE,— ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 

The change that has come about in the relative amount 
of time and space given to the discussion of corrective dis- 
cipline in schools is a fair indication of the advance we 
have made in this country in the methods of training chil- 
dren. Books discussing school management now devote 
attention almost entirely to the instructional work of the 
school and the best ways of keeping pupils interestedly 
busy. Formerly one of the chief topics of such books, as 
well as of teachers' gatherings generally, was the manage- 
ment of difficult cases of discipline. 

I. The Factors of Discipline 

From what has been said in a previous chapter even 
those not experienced in directing the school activities of 
youth might readily infer that a high school would present 
some features peculiarly interesting with reference to gen- 
eral conduct. One of the first things lying back of all 
secondary discipline is the psychological character of the 
adolescent. The love for excitement, for change, for 
action, the desire to do something of consequence, call for 
recognition and direction.^ For fickleness, irresponsibility, 
and the seeming carelessness of abstraction at times, one 
must know how to make due allowance. Rashness of 
action or of speech must not always be taken too seriously. 
Yet all these varying conditions must be so directed, coun- 

171 



172 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

teracted, or suppressed, as gradually to lead the individual 
to sane self -direction as a member of the social group; 

The home conditions are also an important factor to be 
dealt with in individual cases. Some pupils come from 
homes of affluence, where every wish may be, and fre- 
quently is, gratified, and where no opportunity remains for 
acquiring a conscious personal feeling of responsibility. 
Others come from homes of high moral tone but moderate 
circumstances as to wealth. They have learned already 
to assume their share of the duties of the social group to 
which they belong. Still others are from homes where 
there is neither wealth, high moral atmosphere, nor any- 
thing which makes strongly for the fundamental conditions 
of social well-being. 

All three of the above-named conditions are again sub- 
ject to intensifying influence from the community, or at 
least to some decided modification thereby. These things 
tend to make the problem of discipline a complicated one. 
The immediate neighborhood of the school is often a 
source of peculiar difficulty in this respect. This fact 
adds further reason why care should be exercised in the 
selection of a school site over and above the consideration 
of mere convenience or accessibility. 

If we add to what has already been mentioned the real 
purpose to be accomplished by secondary education, we 
have before us the main factors lying back of the prob- 
lems of discipline. ^ Primarily the school is a training place 
which is intended to develop the best of one's individuality 
in such a way as to adapt it most completely to one's nat- 
ural and social environment, and still leave the individual 
with his distinctive characteristics, so far as these may be 
worthy of preservation. 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 173 

II. Three Forms of Discipline: Instruction 

To accomplish this the school offers at least three forms 
of discipline : The discipline of instruction, the discipline 
that is purely corrective of conduct, and the discipline of 
the social life of the school.^ Of these three forms of dis- 
cipline that of instruction is the one most distinctively char- 
acteristic of the educational process which the school 
represents. Let us consider briefly what this discipline of 
instruction stands for. Such a consideration will involve 
some discussion both of the purpose and of the general 
method of instruction. We are already familiar with the 
general scope of work to be offered in the secondary 
school. The intellectual side of this training involves 
instruction in history and science ; the motor side involves 
training in language, both native and foreign, and in the 
manual arts and music. The purpose of this instruction, 
so far as the youth is concerned, is to aid in putting him in 
possession of the common arts of life ; to transfer to him 
as much of the result of man's past activities as he may 
need in getting his own historical adjustment; to train 
him to open-mindedness and alertness toward the phenom- 
ena of nature and the lessons they teach ; and out of it all 
to insure in him a well-balanced moral judgment and a 
will to act in harmony therewith. In other words, the 
ultimate purpose is right conduct on the part of the indi- 
vidual in his relationship to material things, to his fellow- 
man, and to all that concerns the progress of the race. 

To secure this end through the process of instruction 
implies a methodical arrangement both as to materials 
and treatment. Of the two, treatment is the more funda- 
mental thing, and involves some knowledge of the order 
of development of the mental and motor powers, as well 



174 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

as of the adaptability of materials and activities so as 
to make them minister to such development. Naturally 
in the more primitive stages of education the chief thing 
was to train the young in the simple arts of life. For 
this purpose mere imitative work, learning by rote, was 
quite sufficient. As man gradually widened his field of 
experiences new powers developed, both of the hand 
and of the mind. The processes to which his necessities 
subjected him became more and more complex. Hence 
later we find him, while still using the rote method, 
obliged, by this same growth and complexity, to acquire 
certain thought processes. Even this was at first con- 
fined to the memorizing of established forms as in Chinese 
education. Early Greek education, while also chiefly a 
matter of imitation, yet differed in this, that the imitation 
was not of mere dead forms but of the living human 
/ model. This imitation of life was, first of all, action ; the 
learning process came as a secondary thing. In the 
later periods of Greek education we find the methods 
greatly changed. First Socrates and Plato developed 
the philosophical method, while Aristotle through his 
philosophy introduced to the world the objective-subjective 
or scientific method of treatment by which he taught that 
truth was to be found in nature, in social life, and in the 
soul of man. While in most respects his influence was in 
the realm of deductive philosophy, yet in a very significant 
sense we may look to him for the beginning of modern 
methods of treating human knowledge as the materials 
of education. 

The advent of Christianity, and with it the strong 
impulse to convince men of religious truths, brought 
another element into the realm of educational method. 
This was the power of persuasion. It had already been 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 175 

used by all peoples as a means of controlling the actions 
of men and securing their submission to the laws of the 
social environment to which they might belong. But it 
remained to the Christian church to perfect this as an 
important method in education. 

Later on Bacon and his successors developed methods 
similar to those first suggested by Aristotle, applying 
them more completely to the processes of the organization 
of human knowledge and the inductive method of teach- 
ing. In this way we have what is known as the modern 
scientific method. More recently still has appeared the 
psychological aspect of the scientific method, followed 
by what may be called a tendency toward the sociological 
treatment of the materials of education. By the psycho- 
logical aspect of method we undertake to know the nature 
of mind and the order of its development in the child 
and youth in order that we may adapt the materials 
of education to the needs of the various stages of this 
development in such a way as to produce the best results 
in the character of each individual. The sociological 
treatment goes a step farther, and puts emphasis on the 
adjustment of the individual to his social environment, 
and to training to social efficiency. 

Thus far very little is really known that can be said to 
be scientifically sound along these latter lines; but what 
little is known may be put into use while research is going 
forward looking to the determination of all the more fun- 
damental aspects of the problem. As already indicated in 
the discussion of the program of studies, we know in a gen- 
eral way what processes of the mind are involved in the 
study of the various subjects of the secondary group. We 
also know what training is to be looked for in connection 
with certain definite lines of motor activity, as in speaking, 



176 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

music, drawing, working in wood or iron, etc. The finer 
distinctions, those differences which should enable us to 
select and adapt the materials of education to the psycho- 
logical unfolding of youth in harmony with social needs 
and tendencies and with some degree of nicety or with some 
certainty as to what the composite of results is to be, we 
know little about as yet. As a result there is still much to 
be accomplished along the line of experimentation and 
research in psychology and sociology before we may be 
said to have anything like a scientific basis for the appli- 
cation of general, to say nothing about special, method in 
education. 

As a theory the doctrine of interest has been well worked 
out; and it has been fairly tested, also, in the practical 
work of education. Probably nothing which has come into 
the field of educational theory in modern times has given 
such an impetus to the progress of teaching as has this 
doctrine. It is safe to assume that we must continue to 
recognize the place of even the most primitive of methods 
in the successful training of youth. There is still a place 
for rote work and imitation, for much of formal discipline 
consists of the mastery of the endless details of convention- 
alized forms in the arts by means of which all knowledge 
is expressed and transferred. ^But we are equally safe in 
assuming that one of the first things to be accomplished in 
instruction is to secure the interest of the pupil. There is 
naturally a pecuhar difficulty, just at the adolescent stage, 
in inducing very much of that sort of individual activity of 
the pupil which really educates, without first creating or 
finding a basis for interest in the work to be done. It is 
not to be understood that interest is to be invoked to the 
exclusion of real difficulties requiring earnest effort and con- 
centration to overcome them. , By interest as here used is 

V 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 177 

meant that peculiar juncture between motive and accom- 
plishment which gives zest to an undertaking and renders 
even routine vital as something essential to attainment. It 
is in doing this first thing that the teacher is to come into 
closest personal contact with the pupil, a contact to which 
sympathy alone can open the way. 

III. Function and Attitude of the Teacher 

This brings us at once to consider the function and attitude 
of the teacher in instruction. First of all we may say of the 
teacher's function that it is to lead into action, to establish 
ideals and awaken desire and enthusiasm in attaining them ; 
to make known the sources and uses of the materials nec- 
essary to this attainment; and to keep from error or point 
out mistakes. 

The attitude of the teacher is expressed primarily in 
qualities purely personal and due to what is inherent and 
temperamental. These, however, are all more or less 
affected by training and experience. Such qualities are 
sympathy, due largely to emotional strength ; sensitiveness 
in its various aspects; degree of nervous energy, and 
power of persuasion. 

A further expression of the teacher's attitude in instruc- 
tion is found in his sense of the importance of the conven- 
tions and traditions of society, and especially of the school. 
In this respect it is easy to find those who go to the 
extreme one way or the other. Probably those who suc- 
ceed best in the discipline of instruction are those who are 
able to preserve a fair balance. Of course most of these 
conventions and traditions are to be respected ; but when a 
teacher is much given to the habit of constantly insist- 
ing upon extreme observance or recognition, the pupils 
become indifferent through weariness. Take for instance 



178 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

the movement of classes between recitations. The tradi- 
tional standards of the school require teachers to stand 
guard in corridors and to insist upon orderly lines and no 
talking. As a matter of fact the few moments should be 
moments of relaxation ; and so long as pupils avoid crowd- 
ing and boisterous conduct there is no reason why they 
should be kept under surveillance at such a time. The 
better conducted schools secure excellent results by merely 
requiring pupils to observe ordinary rules of propriety 
during such intervals. 

A very important element in this relationship of the 
teacher to instruction is to be found in his zeal for and 
love of the subject he teaches. This involves scholarship 
and professional training and something more. It is not 
the teacher who is finished in a certain branch of study, 
but the living, earnest student of it, in all its bearings, 
that can best inspire interest in a given line of school work. 
There is a broad difference discernible in the treatment of 
a lesson by a teacher having only an elementary knowledge 
of a subject, even though well trained in methods of pres- 
entation, as compared with the teacher who has had the 
more liberal training suggested by a college or university 
degree. Even with little or no knowledge of the formal 
principles of pedagogy involved, the latter will often teach 
far more effectively than the one who has little to offer as 
inspiration to the student beyond the mere externals of a 
superficially favorable treatment. Not that a knowledge 
of the best methods of treatment is undesirable ; what is 
here referred to is that conventional type of pedagogy 
usually taken without much reference to a knowledge of 
the subject itself. 

Generally speaking, it is in the class room that the per- 
sonality of the teacher is put to the test. It is in the class 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 179 

room, certainly, that real integrity of mind and heart 
become discernible to the sensitive mind of youth. It 
is here, then, that the teacher's success or failure is apt 
to begin. The ability to interest, to inspire confidence, to 
convince of fitness without openly claiming it, to satisfy the 
ordinary sense of youth that the work offered is genuine, 
constitute the qualities which enable one to control in the 
schoolroom. Without these things, no amount of asser- 
tion of authority or of invoking higher powers will enable 
the teacher to retain the respect and attentiveness of the 
pupils. 

IV. Corrective Discipline 

It is not to be inferred, however, that there will not be 
cases, even with the best of teachers, which require espe- 
cial care and attention in treating them. This brings us 
to the problem of discipline as a corrective in determining 
conduct. Part of this problem, of course, is the problem 
of all social life, — the result of clashing interests, of jeal- 
ousies, of really depraved conduct which exists alike in 
youth and adults, and which must be disposed of discreetly 
but effectively. Often these bring about situations which 
can best be dealt with by the prompt invoking of authority. 
^ The essential problems of corrective discipline grow out 
of the moral and mental status of the adolescent already 
referred to, and call for the utmost wisdom, tact, and sym- 
pathy of the teacher. It is in the meeting of these things 
that the peculiar power of our best teachers of youth is 
often to be found. This begins with that same class-room 
success mentioned above. In most instances such matters 
are to be settled by the teacher under whose eye they make 
their appearance. However, with pronounced types it may 
be desirable to enlist the cooperation of the principal, of 



l8o HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

fellow-teachers, and often of the parents. A boy or girl 
assumes the attitude of a real tough, for instance, not 
because inherently so, but because of a desire to appear 
courageous, or careless, where really timidity or sensitive- 
ness is the root of the trouble. Often an otherwise good 
boy, but oversensitive to being reminded of the fact, and 
especially of being singled out before his comrades as an 
example of goodness, resents the action by proceeding 
to demonstrate the contrary. Such a condition frequently 
grows out of an unwise parading of a boy's good work as 
a student, often with the result of a sudden dropping down 
in his class standing. In such cases a little wisely directed 
cooperation of teachers and principal may set the student 
right. 

Most of the indolence and carelessness of youth in 
school is directly traceable to adolescent conditions, and 
should be dealt with accordingly. This does not always 
include those who come from homes of wealth and luxury 
where they may have been mistakenly trained to indolence. 
There is perhaps nothing under this form of evil which so 
tries the skill of the teacher and all administrative ability 
as a case of indifference because of the assumption that 
nothing remains to be done but to spend a father's fortune. 
The need of an education does not appeal to such a youth. 
The only hope in this case is to appeal to the pupil's in- 
nate love of achievement in some way, and thus arouse 
in him a real desire to acquire ability in some line of 
activity. 

Happy, indeed, is that principal to whom no cases of 
discipline ever come as a result of a teacher's bungling or 
inefficiency. Perhaps no severer test comes to a man than 
to be called on to adjust, in a satisfactory way, a case which 
is evidently the teacher's blunder rather than the pupil's 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT i8i 

evil way. But adjust it he must, and in such a manner as 
to save both teacher and pupil if possible. 

Boards of education sometimes formulate rules in regard 
to the conduct of pupils, modes of adjustment, etc. He 
is a fortunate principal or superintendent, however, who 
can so manage his school as to leave no grounds for such 
official action except in a most general way. This is 
peculiarly true when applied to the management of high 
schools. The point at which such rules are apt to be of 
greatest efficacy and a real boon to the principal is where 
an adjustment is called for by some unreasoning parent. 
The reference of such a case to some authority outside 
oneself has often saved the day in a crisis of manage- 
ment. 

V. Discipline of the Life of the School 

There remains to be considered the discipline of the 
social life of the school. Under this head we may include 
first of all the general attrition of life upon life in all the 
more informal relations among the pupils themselves and 
of pupils and teachers. The atmosphere for this influence, 
under normal conditions, will emanate largely from the 
intellectual life of the school and the general moral tone 
of its discipline as determined by the teachers and by the 
community life about the school. Then there are special 
groupings growing out of the life of the school. There 
are clubs, literary and athletic organizations, fraternities, 
perhaps; to say nothing of the Httle "sets" and "cliques" 
that will persist in forming in the eddies of this stream of 
young life, — wonderful stream, sweeping ever onward and 
outward, and gradually but resistlessly swelling to a mighty 
flood! There are those who fear the confused contact 
with all classes and conditions in life which comes to the 



i82 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

youth in the free public high school. This is the parent 
instinct to protect the offspring against harm. It is a 
particular form of the more general instinct of self-preser- 
vation. Out of the impulse from this instinct have come 
all class distinctions, all organizations of an exclusive na- 
ture that occur in an infinite variety of forms in every 
group. This human quality goes back to the days of 
primitive man when individuals first combined for protec- 
tion against fierce beasts of prey, or later against enemies 
of their own kind. In itself it is a wholesome fear, for it 
saves the youth from many otherwise unsuspected evils. 

The result in the case of schools is the attempt by some 
parents to find immunity for their young through the selec- 
tion for them of a special private group with which to pursue 
their education. This gives rise to most of our private 
secondary schools, and the purpose is in itself a commend- 
able one. Others, again, insist that the mingling among all 
classes is the only way in which the young are to develop 
real strength of character and the ability to deal with all 
classes satisfactorily in the everyday affairs of life in a 
democracy. These realize the dangers, but they crave for 
their boys and girls such a training as will put them into 
sympathy with all classes. 

Certainly it is the business of those who administer our 
public high schools to seek to minimize those influences 
which are really pernicious in this general contact, at the 
same time that it should be their aim to secure, in the 
highest possible degree, a thoroughly democratic atmos- 
phere of the school. 

To accomplish all this calls for much thought and for a 
wise direction of the social life of the school. We have 
spoken of cliques and sets as eddies in the stream.x If the 
currents of school life and organized effort are kept strong 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 183 

and constant, there will be much less likelihood of such 
groupings. The same is probably true of the fraternity 
movement. This is often spoken of as very undemocratic ; 
yet if we look for the most striking tendencies in democ- 
racy as we know it, we shall find that one of them is the 
formation of just such exclusive sets or orders among men 
and women. All this is done primarily with the idea of 
protection ; yet we know that it is not in harmony with our 
ideal of democracy. In our religious orders, in all secret 
fraternal orders, in clubs and unions, everywhere, we find 
people seeking exclusiveness. Of course in much of this 
we note that the primitive idea of protection has become 
warped into a form almost unrecognizable. This is pecul- 
iarly true where such attempts at exclusiveness are made 
by the young. It is claimed, and justly so, by those who 
object to high school fraternities, that they work a real 
hardship upon those pupils who are left out. In the natu- 
ral zeal of youth the lines are often too sharply drawn, and 
a spirit of division and often discontent pervades the school. 
In view of these facts there can be little doubt as to what 
should be the policy of those in whose hands the adminis- 
tration of schools is placed. It may be possible, however, 
to accomplish more by seeking to absorb these organiza- 
tions in other interests than by opposing to them the 
negation of authority.^ 

Athletics have also become a source of concern to those 
most deeply interested in our high schools. In this, as in 
the case of fraternities, the secondary schools have sought 
to imitate the colleges and universities. It is not that 
athletic sports are undesirable, but that interscholastic con- 
tests have usually proven so. Once rid secondary athletics 

1 Some idea of the extent to which authority has already been invoked in the case of fra- 
ternities may be gained by referring to the legal enactments and decisions on the subject cited 
in Chapter II. 



l84 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of the evils resulting from such contests, and the more 
strenuous sports afield may well continue to constitute a 
valuable part of the physical training of our youth. As a 
result of the vigorous action taken by all leading organiza- 
tions of those having to do virith secondary teaching there 
seems little doubt but that this problem is well on toward 
its solution. The aim should be to secure the greatest good 
to the greatest number. To this end a larger variety of 
sports is needed. If these are provided, and if our boys 
and girls may soon have the advantage of careful medical 
examinations as a means, among other things, of determin- 
ing the especial need of each individual in the form of such 
training, we may yet come to realize the high value of such 
activities in an educational way. 

VI. The Results of Discipline 

The real effect of school discipline, under whatever form, 
is to be found in the general spirit which pervades the 
school. This spirit will be manifested to the careful ob- 
server in the general attitude of the pupils toward their 
work, their teachers, and their general surroundings. Of 
course this spirit of the school may be influenced by local 
traditions. But a well-organized teaching corps composed 
of competent men and women will always be the chief fac- 
tor in its determination. This point is well illustrated by 
the cases of two schools in one of our large cities once 
visited by a high school principal from a neighboring state. 
At the first school visited, immediately upon entering the 
building, the stranger accosted the janitor in the corridor 
and asked him where the principal might be found. He 
was told that the principal was in his office, but could not 
be seen. Passing on to an open class room, the unwelcomed 
visitor listened to the latter part of a recitation. When the 



DISCIPLINE, — ITS PURPOSE AND SPIRIT 185 

gong sounded, the classes were lined up in the halls and 
marched, with teachers heading the columns, to the class 
rooms where they were next to recite. Everywhere there 
was a spirit of sullenness bordering on mutiny. This 
seemed to be true of teachers as well as pupils. 

A second school was visited and here the conditions 
were quite the reverse. The visitor appeared at recess 
time. A young man — one of the pupils of the school 
— was standing near the entrance. Evidently noticing 
that the visitor was a stranger, the student raised his cap, 
and asked if the visitor wished to see the principal. When 
answered in the affirmative, he very politely offered to show 
the way, led the visitor to the principal, and introduced him. 
This spirit pervaded the whole school. There was no con- 
fusion, yet no unnatural constraint. All seemed interested, 
all were pleased to share in the life and duties of the school. 

The ultimate test of the efficiency of discipline, in school 
or out, is in the conduct of the life of the individual who 
has come under its influence. / This is another way of 
saying again that the purpose to be held in mind is the 
training to live in one's social environment, having due 
respect to one's fellow-beings, and yet living in the most 
effective way possible as an individual. Certainly the 
least that we may expect of our high schools is to turn out 
young men and women prepared to live as free but law- 
abiding citizens. To do this we must train to self-control, 
a line of conduct springing from intelligent exercise in an 
atmosphere of freedom rather than the lockstep habit of 
prison discipline. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. A study of discipline among the Chinese. 

2. A study of Greek discipline. 



l86 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

3. The evolution of the scientific method of teaching. 

4. A study of the psychological and sociological aspects of method 
and their present status as to actual application. 

5. The development of the art of persuasion as an element in edu- 
cational method. 

6. The growth of the doctrine of interest. 

References. — " Text-book in the History of Education," Monroe ; " The Mean- 
ing of Education," Butler; " Interest in Education," De Garmo; "The Individual, 
and the Moral Aim in American Education," Mark ; " Isolation in the School," 
Young; "Moral Education," Griggs; "Principles and Methods of Teaching," 
Welton; "The School and its Life," Gilbert; "High School Discipline," Bieden- 
bach. School Review, 4: 228-231 ; " Secret Fraternities in the High School," Morri- 
son, N. E. A. Report, 1904, pp. 484-490 ; Melins, Review of Reviews, 36 : 338-341 ; 
" The Dogma of Formal Discipline," Hinsdale, N. E. A. Report, 1894, p. 625 ; 
" Formal Discipline," C. J. C. Bennett ; " Discipline in the High School," Den- 
field, N. E. A. Report, 1892, p. 341 ; " High School Government," Tucker, Edu- 
cation, 25 : 1 ; " Self-government in High Schools," Thurber, School Review, 
5 : 32-35 ; McAndrew, 5 : 456-460 ; " Discipline vs. Dissipation," Shorey, School 
Review, 5:217-230; "Personality in High School Teachers," Thurber, Edtt~ 
cation, 21 : 81 ; " A Study of the Teacher's Influence," Sanford Bell, Fed. Sent,, 
7 : 492-525 ; " The Social Side of High School Life," Halleck, N. E. A. Report, 
1902, p. 459 ; " Social Ethics in Life of the High School," Morrison, School Re- 
view, 13:361-370; "Aim in High School," Butler, School Review, 14:135-141; 
" The Problem of School Government," French, School Review, April, 1900, pp. 
201-212; "The Relation of School Discipline to Moral Education," W. T. Harris, 
Third Year Book, National Herbartian Society; " Studies in Education," Vol. I, 
Earl Barnes; " Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development," Bald< 
win ; " Education and Social Life," J. W. Harper. 



CHAPTER X 

THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 

We are returning here to a theme which was made a 
part of the discussion on discipHne in the preceding 
chapter; or, rather, we are continuing the discussion 
begun in that chapter under the above title. It does not 
seem wise to pass over so interesting and vital a subject 
in its relationship to school administration without giving 
it some more special consideration. In our previous refer- 
ences to the life of the school we have called attention to 
some of its broader characteristics as related to general 
discipline. It will now be in order to consider these ele- 
ments more in detail. 

I. Factors which determine It 

In order to comprehend the real nature of this life in 
its solidarity we must consider the factors which go to 
form it. First among these is the fact of democracy. In 
a sense it is true that the high school community repre- 
sents a survival ; but it is also true in most cases that in 
this group of survivals all classes in our democracy are 
represented. Here, side by side, are children of the rich, 
the well-to-do, and the very poor ; of the leisure class, the 
merchant, and the coal digger ; of the genius, the success- 
ful man, and the "born short" ; of the pagan, the Jew, and 
the Christian ; of the highly moral, the complacent, and 
the positively immoral ; of the white race, the yellow race, 

187 



i88 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

and the black race. All or most of these elements, male 
and female, of a world's great democracy are found repre- 
sented in the vast majority of American high schools. It 
needs not to be said that this fact alone is a very impor- 
tant factor in determining the life of the school. 

From their childhood these boys and girls have taken 
into their minds, along with the smiles or buffets which 
life has brought them, the teaching that " all men are free 
and equal before the law." Here in the school they sit in 
the same classes, are attracted or repelled by the same 
teachers, read the same literature, solve the same prob- 
lems, discuss the same history ; think, feel, dream 
dreams; learn to love, respect, honor, aspire; to hate, 
despise, hold in contempt, despair; become discriminat- 
ing, tolerant, loyal to class or teacher or school; or be- 
come careless, intolerant, disloyal, mean, — all this as 
common children of a democracy in the common school 
of all the people. They have met together here in order, 
ostensibly, to take on, in a brief space of time, elements 
of all the vast reaches of the thought, the endeavor, the 
conventions, the institutions, bequeathed their generation 
from the past of the race. In reality they will get, more 
than anything else, the results of the play of life upon 
life, as they mingle with teachers and schoolmates in the 
varying activities of the school. 

And this is well. How better can a democracy train 
those who are to mingle in its life, to share in its burdens, 
to sweat and groan with it in its travail to bring forth a 
strong and vigorous public morality.? The more nearly 
the life of the school in this respect corresponds to real 
life the better prepared will our youth be to live success- 
fully with the same conditions of life about them when 
their school days are over. 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 189 

A second important factor in determining the life of the 
high school is found in the characteristics peculiar to 
youth. These have already been discussed in the chapter 
on adolescence. A restatement of them in more general 
terms, perhaps, will suffice for our purpose here. First of 
all is the factor of sex with the consequent development 
of larger social interests and relations. As a result of this 
there arises a new self-consciousness. The period of 
youth is marked also by a deepening of emotional life, by 
an intense desire to engage in physical activities of all 
kinds, and by a deepening of the religious sense. 

The character and purpose of the high school itself as 
a social instrumentality and as determined by the ex- 
pressed will of the state is another factor in determining 
the nature and trend of its life. All legislation by the 
state, fixing in any way the nature of the activities of the 
school or the methods of organization and government, 
including provisions for sanitation or safety, text-books, 
curriculum, the qualifications of teachers, must bear 
directly, as a formative influence, upon the character and 
life of the school community. In the same category 
would occur the rules and regulations made by boards of 
education for the conduct and government of the school. 
All this may be entirely independent of the influence of 
the real needs of youth as determined by the characteris- 
tics named above. 

There are other outside influences than those of democ- 
racy in general, and of legislative bodies. In a certain 
sense these all might be considered under the one heading 
of democracy, although not necessarily peculiar to it. 
Other states than democratic ones may mold their schools 
by legislation. It is nevertheless true that legisla- 
tion will take its quality largely from the nature of the 



igo HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

State. This is readily seen in contrasting the educational 
systems of this country and of Europe. The same dis- 
tinction may be seen in the case of the other outside influ- 
ences which may be considered among those factors which 
determine the character of the life of a school. 

Such other influences are what we may call the domi- 
nant institutions and traditions of a community, the pre- 
vailing moral atmosphere, and the financial ability of the 
school district. Among dominant institutions are those 
of the larger community of state and nation, such as col- 
leges and universities, and state and national civil service. 
As these factors are considered at some length in later 
chapters, their enumeration here will be sufficient. 

II. Different Phases of School Life 

Having accounted for the composition of the social 
group with which we are dealing, we may now inquire into 
the different phases of this life and the forms under which 
it is made manifest. This will take us into a study of the 
interaction of the various factors mentioned above ; for it 
is probably true that in all these manifestations some if 
not all of the factors will be seen to be components. 

We shall take first the conventions of the school. These 
include the daily program, or the relative time devoted to 
school work, to recreation, and to other occupations ; the 
habit of the school in regard to restricting individual free- 
dom (i) as to class, (2) as to seating, (3) as to social 
intercourse, (4) as to other privileges and immunities ; 
requirements as to preparation of lessons, including library 
and field work, and the preparation of written exercises ; the 
nature of records kept as to attendance, scholarship, phys- 
ical conditions, etc. These are partly traditional and partly 
determined by the legislation of states and school boards. 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 191 

Probably this phase of school life is more influential 
than any or all others in giving boys and girls the impres- 
sion that the school is unreal, and that if one is to live 
normally, he must get away from school. Much might be 
said here regarding the proper management of this aspect 
of the school in order to reduce to the minimum the conse- 
quent unrest and friction on the part of pupils. Perhaps 
it is enough to say that all these conventions should be 
made as yielding and flexible as the nature of the case will 
permit without the sacrifice of anything really essential. 
In reckoning with them the two fundamental principles 
involved are the relation they bear to the propensities of 
youth, on the one hand, and to the accomplishment of the 
purposes of education, on the other. 

Another aspect of the community life of the school 
appears in those ideals which are shared in common. 
When we consider the intensity of feeling and the strong 
inclination to take sides, the spirit of partisanship char- 
acteristic of youth, we shall be able to understand how 
high school pupils naturally cling to certain ideals of the 
school. These ideals are often traditional and sometimes 
thoroughly bad ; yet to uproot them one must succeed in 
supplying counter ideals which appeal even more strongly 
to the desires and aspirations of the leading elements in 
the school. It is only the masterful among teachers who 
can succeed in planting new ideals ; yet it very often hap- 
pens that this is the only way to improve a given school 
condition. 

Such common ideals may pertain to punctual attendance, 
to scholarship, to moral conduct, to the attitude of the 
school toward the teachers, toward certain special exercises 
or functions of the school. When once they possess the 
common mind of the school, good or bad, they are adhered 



192 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

to with all that peculiar zeal which marks the age of early 
youth. The possible influence of such common ideals in 
molding the lives of individuals is readily apparent. Great 
is the responsibility and great the opportunity of one who 
possesses the peculiar faculty of setting up for a school 
community its ideals. 

What we may call the morale of the high school is an- 
other phase of its life which deserves attention here. By 
this is meant the confidence and the zeal with which the 
students of the school enter upon their work or on any 
special exercises, or engage in friendly contests in athletics 
or debate. This feature will depend largely upon the 
ideals cherished by the school and upon the spirit and 
attitude of the teachers. Confidence and courage develop 
best where there is conscious power together with freedom 
in action. The strong teacher who enthusiastically leads 
on to achievement in books is sure to beget in the minds 
of his pupils that confidence and courage necessary to 
overcome difficulties or opposition in any other form. 
Other things equal, a maximum of freedom in action will 
also inspire the same quality of confidence. Experience 
shows that it is not so easy to secure these qualities in the 
characters of youth under stern and autocratic rule. 

Still another interesting way in which the life of the 
secondary school manifests itself may be called the interest 
in and strong desire for voluntary organizations. This 
propensity of high school boys and girls is sure to show 
itself in some form, whether in school or out. If under- 
stood and taken in time, it yields readily enough to guid- 
ance, provided the methods chosen by teachers or others 
are in harmony with youthful inclination. If neglected, it 
is sure to come up spontaneously, and often in a way to 
mar the life of the school, or of the social group to which 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 193 

the youth belong. Forbush, in his " Social Pedagogy of 
Boyhood," ^ has given us some very suggestive materials 
on this subject of youthful organizations. In fact, we only 
need to look about us to see that the tendency persists 
strongly even throughout early manhood. Why should 
not high school principals and teachers profit by such reve- 
lations ? Grant that boys and girls will organize in some 
way ; that they have definite tendencies as to the purposes 
of organization; and that these purposes differ for boys 
and girls : what more definite basis for the determination 
of policy can be desired than this .? 

III. Place and Importance of School Organizations 

The neglect to take advantage of plain facts and tend- 
encies leads almost invariably to ^ome form of trouble in 
the administration of high school affairs. Investigations 
point to the fact that, in the vast majority of cases, boys 
organize for some plan of physical action. Later they will 
take up organizations for literary and other intellectual 
interests. In boyhood they like athletics, military organi- 
zations, orchestral or band organizations in music, expedi- 
tions to field or forest or stream, manual work, — anything 
that satisfies their craving for action in groups. In this 
respect their tastes nowhere run parallel to those of girls. 
The latter like sewing, tea-parties, piano musicales, charita- 
ble organizations for supplying cookery, flowers, etc. Boys 
need virile men as leaders, men who can enter into the 
organization heartily with them. Girls seek the association 
of womanly young women who can also enter sympathetic- 
ally and sincerely into their girlish enterprises. More 
recent developments show a growing interest for athletic 
sports among girls ; but we are not prepared to say 

1 Sqc Fed. Sent., 7 : 307-346, 



194 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

whether this is a natural tendency that has lain dormant 
until now, or only an inclination to imitate boys as a result 
of association with them in school work. Here is one of 
the problems to be considered in our future study of 
coeducation. 

We have already touched upon another phase of school 
life in discussing organizations; for some of the latter 
naturally connect themselves with occupations of the 
school. It is here that the school life shows itself, under 
normal conditions, in its most distinctive aspect. After 
all, the center of this community life must be in that great 
work for which the school is organized. We are com- 
pelled to admit that, at best, the school is but a conven- 
tionalized scheme for enabling the individual to overtake 
race growth in time to enter upon his manhood's career 
as nearly as possible abreast of his time. In seeking to 
accomphsh this difficult feat for those who cannot see far 
ahead, and who must take most of it, after all, on faith, we 
should be unwise indeed if we did not make use of as much 
of the reality in the lives of the young as will possibly 
adjust itself to the accomplishing of our main purpose. 

And really is there not a profound significance in the 
instinctive tendency to organize which we have noted 
above ? How else can youth ever test the principles which 
they are expected to deduce from their historical studies, 
their mathematics, their art, their physical sciences } All 
these activities in which youth delights, — are they not as 
necessary a component of that race growth to be taken on 
as are the lessons to be learned from books ? If we believe 
that the value of such lessons lies in the inculcation of a 
love for truth, in the development of nobility of character 
and in learning justice, in cultivating honesty, loyalty, 
and unselfish devotion, in acquiring strength and skill of 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 195 

hand and accuracy of vision, in training the judgment to 
unerring decisiveness, — how are we ever to hope for their 
realization in those who are limited in training to expres- 
sion in language with, perhaps, a little drawing or music ? 
In considering the occupations of the school, then, as a 
manifestation of its community life, we should include all 
those organizations and activities which in any way serve 
as a means for the development of the expressional side 
of feeling, thought, character. If these organizations or 
activities are wrong and therefore discordant with the 
great and fundamental purposes of education, we should 
seek to displace them. Where prohibitive measures are 
used we should be sure to supply, adequately, the place of 
the thing prohibited, in so far as it may be found to 
harmonize with the desired ends of school administration. 
Where any possible way offers of displacing the offensive 
element through substitution this method will usually be 
found safer and more effective than prohibition. 

IV. American Schools behind in the Social Organi- 
zation OF the School 

In this life of the school we Americans have made little 
progress as yet. Our English brothers can teach us much 
in regard to this phase of secondary work. The story of 
Arnold at Rugby may well hold us for a time in our seek- 
ing after ways and means for the elimination of this 
element of greatest weakness in our secondary system. 
True, we may not adopt the " house system " of the Eng- 
lish boarding school, but we may get a lesson in adapting 
the spirit of it in some of its most essential features by a 
study of Principal Findlay's work at Cardiff ^ in organizing 
a day school whose pupils all slept at home, in such a man- 

1 See articles by J. J. Findlay, Vols. 15 and 16 of the School Review. 



196 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ner as to keep as much as possible of the social life of the 
" house " plan. 

By this plan the pupils are organized in " houses " under 
the leadership of instructors, but with the pupils partici- 
pating in the organization and management of "house" 
affairs. Under this scheme the games and other general 
social activities of the school are organized and conducted. 
Mr. Findlay tells us that he also introduced the Eltern- 
Abende which Rein has used so effectively at Jena under 
the changed name of an " at home " for parents. In this 
way parents, teachers, and pupils were brought into a closer 
social life, the boys leading in the plans and preparations 
for the entertainments. 

We are not surprised when the same writer says : " I 
regard the secret fraternity as an abnormal growth, due to 
the neglect of the American high school to organize itself 
as a society y In the light of the facts already set forth in 
this and one or two preceding chapters, who can question 
the correctness of this view } The trouble with us is that 
we have no time for a social organization of the school. 
We take the matter of carrying out the curriculum too 
seriously, and thereby fall far short of its satisfactory ac- 
complishment. In another place we have urged the neces- 
sity for a saner organization of our high schools by the 
appointment of head teachers over related groups to co- 
operate with the principal in organizing the work of the 
school. If the Chicago high schools could have had some 
such system, instead of the present more or less highly 
specialized system of departments without heads, who 
shall say but that the disagreeable experiences through 
which they have been passing on account of the Greek 
letter fraternities might have been averted } 

The shadow cast by the trying fraternity episodes in the 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 197 

central West and on the Pacific coast are not without their 
lesson. Many of our high schools are already struggling 
heroically with the problem of adjustment of the school to 
the social needs of the pupils. We have our athletics, 
rather crudely organized as yet, our oratorical and debat- 
ing clubs, our orchestras and other musical organizations, 
our school publications and our literary societies. But 
these are successfully managed in but few schools. 

V. The Oak Park Plan 

In some communities the people are awake to the needs 
of the situation and are organizing for helpfulness in the 
betterment of the high schools in their social aspects. One 
plan for such organization is that in operation in connec- 
tion with the Oak Park, Illinois, township high school. 
This is a large suburban high school of a superior type 
under the management of Principal J. Calvin Hanna. In 
connection with this school there is a Parents and Teachers* 
Association which works through three committees, — edu- 
cational, social, and athletic. 

Through the social committee the various social func- 
tions of the high school are planned. Fortunately the 
people of the community are liberal-minded enough to 
appreciate and permit those social recreations in which 
young people delight. By means of this work much is 
being done toward the establishment of a fine democratic 
spirit in the school. 

The educational committee provides for open meetings 
of an educational nature by means of which higher educa- 
tional sentiment is cultivated. This committee also plans 
for a visitation of the high school by many of the parents. 
Incidentally some mothers take studies with the children, 
"brushing up " on former studies or even taking new ones. 



198 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The committee on athletics has provided the school with 
an athletic field of seven acres, leased for the purpose, and 
properly fitted up through funds secured by the committee. 
In the athletics of the school something for everybody is 
the aim. One year of physical training is required of all. 
This is the first year. All kinds of competitive games 
and sports are organized for the boys of the upper classes. 
The girls are not allowed to play public games ; but they 
have their nine-man game of basket-ball, their folk and 
gymnastic dancing, volley ball, relay racing, etc. 

All of this work is carefully supervised. We have given 
the details thus fully in this case in order to show what is 
being attempted by some high schools toward the better 
organization of the social life of the school. 

It is well, as has already been said, that certain objec- 
tionable features that have sprung up here and there should 
be suppressed ; but those in authority should not fail to see 
that a reasonable substitute in the way of some organized 
activity be provided. 

VI. Student Self-government 

One further consideration remains : To what extent 
should this life of the high school be permitted to become 
self -directive ? To use the phraseology of some recent 
discussions, should we adopt student government in our 
high schools? In another paragraph we have said that 
"confidence and courage develop best where there is 
conscious power together with freedom of action." The 
purpose of our schools is to train for a life among a self- 
governing people. The salient facts here are that we are 
a free people, but that we recognize the need of gov- 
ernment. Training to intelligent self-government, then, 
involves training to a full realization of the place of indi- 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 199 

vidual freedom and also of governing authority in this 
mode of national existence. Failure to realize the place 
of authority in such a government may be said to consti- 
tute a peculiar weakness of our democracy. 

We are prepared to say, then, that whatever form of 
school government consistent with the nature and needs 
of immature youth and the capabilities of the teaching per- 
sonnel of our high schools will best prepare our youth for 
the full recognition of this twofold nature of self-govern- 
ment is the kind of government for our high schools to 
adopt. The writer will never forget the impression made 
upon him by frequent visits to the Central High School of 
Kansas City, Missouri, in 1890 to 1892. Here was a school 
of 1600 boys and girls, governed, apparently, with ease. At 
class intermissions they were left free to pass through cor- 
ridors and up and down the stairways without any one on 
guard, with no system of espionage permitted. Conversa- 
tion was free, movement deliberate or rapid, as suited the 
individual's convenience. The only requirements were 
that there be no unseemly boisterousness, and that all be 
in their places for the next recitation or study period. Yet 
never was there observable any marked deviation from such 
conduct as decorum in any social group would dictate. 

Equally interesting was a recent visit to the Roxbury 
High School of Boston. Here a system of pupil govern- 
ment is in force. The pupils have their own government 
organization, including a court which decrees what punish- 
ment shall be given in case of offense. The principal allows 
no espionage by teachers, no reports on offenders to him- 
self. He requires that the findings of the pupil court be 
reported to him without naming the offender. He states 
that his only need of interference is occasionally to soften 
the severity of the penalties meted out. It should be stated, 



200 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

also, that the problem is here simplified by the fact that the 
pupils are required to be present only for recitations and 
for the satisfaction of any special demands upon them in 
connection with their work. The school is coeducational, 
and smaller than the one at Kansas City. The apparent 
results are in every way as good as those found in the 
latter city. 

Now which of these methods is right } The probabilities 
seem to favor the conclusion that each is right in its place. 
For Principal Clay, with his splendid faith in his pupils, 
and these in the Roxbury High School, and with his fine 
corps of teachers, there is probably no finer thing than his 
scheme of self-government as a means to the chief end in 
view. Yet it is hardly safe to conclude that, therefore, 
all high schools should undertake pupil government. For 
Principal John T. Buchanan and Kansas City his scheme 
was best. There was a maximum of freedom, but a suffi- 
cient amount of restraint to act as a constant reminder that 
the necessary element of an elert authority existed. And 
more principals can be found who are capable of doing 
what Buchanan did, — many are doing it. Many others 
are trying to help out personal inadequacy in themselves 
and their teachers by a wretched overdisplay of authority, 
and by hampering the entire situation through the laying 
of restrictions of more than doubtful utility and therefore 
doubtful of enforcement. 

For him who would undertake the administration of such 
an institution for the training of youth as a public high 
school, there is ample room for study in the life of the 
school. 



THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL 201 



PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. An investigation of the extent to which overemphasis on the 
conventions of the school tends to repel boys. 

2. A study of the prevailing ideals common to individual high 
schools and their relation to the life and effectiveness of the school. 

3. An investigation of the extent to which physical activities in con- 
nection with high school life serve as a means of expression of ideas 
gained in study. 

4. A study of the student-government scheme in this country. 

References. — " The Social Pedagogy of Boyhood," Forbush, Ped. Sem., 7 : 307- 
346; "Diary of a Western Schoolmaster," Stableton; "Citizenship and the 
Schools," Jenks ; " Social Phases of Education," Button ; " Social Control," Ross ; 
"The Corporate Life of the School," Findlay, School Review, 15:744-753, also 
16 : 601-608 ; " Pupil Self-government, its Theory and Practice," Cronson ; " Rela- 
tion of School Organization to Instruction," Jackman, Pop. Set. Mo., 70: 120-123; 
" Self-government by Students in School and College," Thompson, Social Education 
Quarterly, i : 41-53 ; " Regulation and Control of Competitive Sport in the Second- 
ary Schools in the United States," Lowman, American Physical Education Review, 
12 : 241-255. See also references to Chapter IX and references on adolescence 
under Chapter VIII. 



CHAPTER XI 

METHOD AS APPLIED TO HIGH SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 

In the ninth chapter the subject of method has received 
some attention on account of its inseparable connection 
with the discipline of instruction. We have thus far re- 
ferred to it, however, only in the most general way. Lest 
these general references be interpreted as indicating a lack 
of appreciation of the place and importance of method in 
a scheme of secondary education a special chapter is here 
devoted to its further consideration. 

I. A Knowledge of Method necessary in Adminis- 
tration 

Nor is some such treatment untimely in a discussion of 
school administration ; for one of the chief duties of the 
high school principal is to be able both to recognize effec- 
tive teaching and to point out defects and suggest remedies 
in other cases. All this involves on his part a thorough 
acquaintance with the general principles of method and 
their special application to the teaching of particular sub- 
jects. The need for such knowledge on the part of the 
administrator of a high school is rendered all the more 
imperative at the present day because of the large number 
of those who begin high school teaching with little or 
no previous training in the nature and uses of method in 
education. 



i 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 203 

II. Scant Treatment of High School Methods 

If any further reason were needed for the introduction 
of the subject here, it might be found in the fact that there 
is scant treatment of this particular phase of instruction in 
the works of most writers on method. Many and excel- 
lent discussions on method as applied to the teaching of 
the elementary grades are to be had ; but when it comes 
to that period which, roughly, may be said to begin at the 
seventh grade, or at the age of eleven to thirteen years, 
most writers break off suddenly, as though this were a 
veritable terra incognita or else a stage at which all neces- 
sity for method naturally disappears. Most of those among 
American writers who have ventured even an approach to 
this phase of the subject leave us with a feeling that the 
work is incomplete and fragmentary. At least one Eng- 
lish writer, Welton,i has done better than this, and has 
given us a very helpful and suggestive treatment such as 
will readily apply to secondary teaching. Perhaps this is 
due in a general way to what M. V. O'Shea calls a "char- 
acteristic difference between English and American books 
on education." 2 He speaks of English writers as treat- 
ing educational subjects in a systematic and logical man- 
ner without basing this treatment on much in the form of 
experimental data. American books, as a rule, he charac- 
terizes as not systematic or logical, but as abounding in. 
concrete materials. Be this as it may, we are still waiting 
for a full treatment of method for high schools; and it 
is to be presumed that it is chiefly a lack of sufficient 
data that causes American writers to hesitate at this point. 
In any case this must be the plea of the present writer 

* " Principles and Methods of Teaching." 

2 In his review of " Principles of Intellectual Education," by F. H. Matthews, School 
Review, March, 1908. 



204 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

in view of the very brief treatment given the subject 
here. 

In justice it should be said that we are not left altogether 
without materials when it comes to the treatment of spe- 
cial subjects. The valuable hst in the American Teachers 
Series by Longmans, as well as several numbers in the 
Teachers' Professional Library series by Macmillan, rep- 
resent a distinct acquisition to the high school teacher's 
resources on method. 

III. Differences due to Adolescence 

It remains for us here to consider briefly, and from the 
point of view of the administrator of the high school, such 
principles of method, general and special, as are now at 
our command. In the first place the question arises as to 
what conditions exist in the form of differences between 
elementary and high school education which call for a cor- 
responding differentiation of methods of teaching. Most 
of us would doubtless readily accept Dewey's notion of 
the gradual development of mind from childhood through 
pubescence and adolescence. This, of itself, would signify 
such a change in mentality as would naturally result from 
the growth of conceptual and reasoning power and the 
training of imagination and will. 

Probably a more important factor still, as a result of 
growth in years, is the larger outlook on life believed to be 
attributable to the rapid development at this period of the 
physical element of sex. This larger prospect opens the 
way to the action of various socializing influences before 
unrecognized. As a result the attitude of the individual 
toward instruction changes. From that of a passive or 
imitative recipient the mind turns rapidly to the attitude of 
inquiry as to what is best, and why, in order to fit oneself 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 205 

for the social relations and obligations which begin to make 
themselves felt to the youthful mind. 

As a result of this change in the youth's conscious rela- 
tionship to his environment, there come new aims and 
purposes for the secondary school. These we all readily 
recognize. Nor do we think strangely of the fact that with 
these new aims and purposes must come either a selection 
of new materials of education or the adaptation of old ma- 
terials to this new situation. In the elementary stages of 
the educative process we have found it desirable to dwell 
upon the arts of the school, and to content ourselves with 
very simple and concrete aspects of nature and history. 
As we approach the age of pubescence, we find a growing 
demand for those things which unfold more fully the world- 
life, whether of man or of nature, and which lead more or 
less directly to the acquisition of such elements of knowl- 
edge and skill as shall fit one for some definite calling in 
Hfe. 

As a result, there are introduced into the pupil's range 
of mental exercise history of various peoples in different 
ages, a more comprehensive view of natural forces through 
science, a wider reach in mathematical conceptions and ap- 
plications, the presentation of sesthetical, ethical, and eco- 
nomic truths in literature, civics, and geography, and even 
a wider range of linguistic possibility through the foreign 
language work. Nor do we omit the continuation of work 
in drawing and music, nor the introduction of the means to 
training in the elements of skill in handiwork. 

Surely, if we were in doubt before as to the necessity for 
some readjustment in the methods of instructing youth, the 
foregoing recital of changed conditions must convince us 
of such need. No doubt this call for readjustment will be 
found more marked in the case of special method in treat- 



206 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

ing individual subjects than in the application of the prin- 
ciples of general method. We may now proceed to a 
definite, though brief, consideration of the principles of 
general method as applied to high school instruction. 

IV. The Doctrine of Interest 

As has already been said,^ the doctrine of interest is as 
applicable to secondary education as to elementary. Per- 
haps we should say that it is more applicable ; for certainly 
the grounds for interest have deepened and narrowed 
somewhat. From a rapid flitting from one to another of 
numberless sensuous appeals the interest of youth begins 
to concentrate more upon the relationship of the self to 
environment, and especially those elements of environment 
which promise to satisfy his awakening social interests. If 
interest is appealed to aright, therefore, we should find the 
adolescent responding just as readily and with more inten- 
sity than does the child. If, on the other hand, youth and 
its aspirations are not understood, the chances are that 
listlessness will be the only response. Or even where only 
vague and ill-defined desires are springing up, unless the 
teacher's presentation of interests appropriate in themselves 
is accompanied by sufficient enthusiasm to arouse these 
still slumbering desires, the result is still likely to be indif- 
ference. 

It is probably at this point of gradually awakening 
interests and desires that evil elements in the youth's 
environment get in their nefarious influences and set up 
wrong ideals. The writer has had occasion to observe, in 
several instances, how rapidly evil has grown up in the 
minds of youth who have been left for a brief time only in 
the hands of a teacher having no power of kindling such 

iCf. Chapter IX. 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 207 

enthusiasm. We may take it for granted that mere phys- 
ical demonstrativeness will not be mistaken for enthusiasm. 
Often these fires burn deepest under a calm exterior ; but 
the vibrant tone, the kindling eye, the deep though sub- 
dued earnestness of the teacher who possesses this quality, 
will call out a ready response in youth. 

V. Correlation 

The subject of correlation as a principle of method has 
been so frequently referred to in other chapters as to need 
little further mention here. There is no subject taught in 
the high school which does not relate itself more or less 
directly not only to other high school subjects but back- 
ward to the subjects characteristic of the elementary grades 
as well. It should be a part of each teacher's preparation 
to know these points of contact and inter-relationship and 
to be able to adjust the methods of teaching to the facts 
which this knowledge reveals. 

Correlation in the sense of concentration of all subjects 
about two or three, whatever may be its advantages in the 
elementary stages of education, can hardly be said to be 
feasible to any extent in the high school. In the first place 
the nature of the subjects of study or training is more dis- 
tinctly differentiated ; and in the second place the greater 
development of reasoning power, together with the in- 
creased concentration of the pupil's interests, naturally 
tends toward isolation of subjects. There are, nevertheless, 
two very important uses to be made of the principle of 
correlation in high school teaching. The first of these is 
in connecting up with the past, as in the teaching of mathe- 
matics, for instance. Thus far, in the majority of cases, 
the pupils' mathematical concepts are in the comparatively 
specific terms of arithmetic and relate chiefly to concrete 



2o8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

experiences. In all cases there will still remain the need 
of developing a broader connection between these more 
specific processes and the corresponding generalized pro- 
cesses of algebra. In the case of geometry the correlation 
will turn from the application of derived geometrical princi- 
ples through rules to the actual derivation of those princi- 
ples through demonstration. 

Similarly nature studies and secondary science should 
find a blending ; the elementary training in the more iso- 
lated facts of history should lead over into the field of a 
closer historical survey in the study of types among peoples 
or in specific historical movements ; while all along the line 
the relation of the arts of the school, more or less perfectly 
mastered in the elementary stage, to the larger activities 
of the secondary period will constantly be kept in mind. 
The necessity for these arts as means, and therefore the 
demand for their perfect mastery in order to make the most 
of the work in hand, will call out renewed effort to make 
good any conscious defects from this previous training 
where their acquisition was largely unconscious and formal. 
The second use to be made of correlation is in properly 
connecting a given subject with those contiguous fields of 
% thought to which it is inseparably related. This is a vital 
i element in this phase of secondary method. Indeed, it 
may be said to become more intense at each stage of ad- 
vancement beyond the art side of the individual's educa- 
tion. There is a sense here in which the tendency toward 
isolation needs modification through the skill of the 
teacher in the use of method. These side relations are 
the guy ropes of support to the main shafts of isolated 
development in the mind. Without them the mind is un- 
stable, the individual's outlook upon life is lacking in 
what we call balance, sanity. 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 269 

Of course, it will be equally fatal to spend too much 
force on the side lines. The natural selection of the age 
demands that minds develop, as it were, from a terminal 
bud, rather than with that general diffuseness which a too 
vigorous growth from lateral buds would produce. This 
does not, however, involve the utter exclusion of side lines. 
A tree without any branches is almost unthinkable ; cer- 
tainly the development of any line of thought or of organ- 
ized principles in the form of a secondary subject of study, 
without clearly developed relations to other fields of 
study, is undesirable. 

Probably our colleges and universities should be held 
accountable, in this particular instance, for most of the 
weakness now apparent in the method of treating the 
various subjects included in the high school program. 
The training they offer for prospective high school teach- 
ers is deplorably deficient in respect to the second phase 
of correlation we have been discussing. What we need 
for this field of teaching is not merely a knowledge of 
science, but science in an applied form, applied to the art 
of secondary instruction. This calls for something more 
than a specialized subject training. It involves as well a 
survey of the two fields of correlation which have been 
outlined above. 

VI. The Scientific Method 

The more constant and general application of the scien- 
tific method in all lines of study and investigation of a 
secondary order will call for an ever increasing emphasis 
on the processes of inductive and deductive reasoning. 
Each of these processes will be found to have its place, 
although the deductive is Hkely to get the Hon's share of 
attention, unless care is taken to emphasize the inductive 



2IO HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

method of thought wherever practicable. To attain this 
result one may not depend solely on the proportion of 
subjects which seem to offer themselves to induction in 
reasoning. The teacher who does not thoroughly appre- 
ciate the nature of the inductive method, and know how to 
organize the materials of education and direct the teaching 
process to its accomplishment in the work of each pupil, 
is very apt to fall back unconsciously on the deductive 
method, no matter what the subject. We are perhaps 
prone to think of the scientific method as applicable only 
in the case of the natural sciences. It was pointed out in 
Chapter VII. that the natural sciences present a peculiar 
advantage in this respect because of their comparatively 
elemental nature. It would be a serious mistake, how- 
ever, not to seek the application of this method in deal- 
ing with all departments of human knowledge. 

It is possible in this connection to confuse the meaning 
of scientific method with training in science. The system- 
atic method of inquiry involved in the teaching of the 
sciences may well serve as a definite and superior means 
of training to the scientific habit of mind. The work of 
the secondary school would fall far short of its function in 
this department of instruction if it did not succeed in turn- 
ing the application of this induced mental attitude to other 
subjects of study. This would lead to what Edward Fry^ 
calls " the determination to search after the utmost exacti- 
tude of which any branch of knowledge admits." When 
such a method is applied to work in historical subjects as 
well, as in science, the advantage thus to be gained in 
training the young to take always the attitude of open- 
mindedness toward the truth is not likely to be over- 
estimated. 

1 In Content, Rev., 87: 383-392. 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 211 

This is no new thing in education. Such a treatment 
of all fields of knowledge goes back beyond the Greeks 
even. The application of this scientific method to various 
problems of a social nature is quite common in modern 
times. It is that mental practice which makes possible a 
calm and judicial treatment of a subject rather than the 
effort to reach agreement or a satisfying decision through 
the heat of debate, or under the excitement attendant 
upon the sudden presentation of an entirely new aspect to 
a problem of life. 

Arbitration boards, international or otherwise, various 
commissions, courts of justice, etc., are familiar illustra- 
tions of the social application of the scientific method. 
It should not be forgotten, however, that even the scien- 
tific method of itself is quite inadequate when it comes to 
a consideration of an all-around development of character. 
The most that can be said of it is that it is the best we 
have in the way of method for the acquisition of knowl- 
edge, that is, the most accurate, the most exact, attainable. 
Still other means must be found for the development of 
the moral side of the individual's character. 

VII. Apperception and Isolation 

The principle of apperception as applied to high school 
teaching differs little from its use in the primary school. 
New ideas are constantly arising to be interpreted and 
organized in the light of previous experiences. If the 
process may be said to differ at all in the case of youth, 
it is probably in the direction that the new social inter- 
ests will give, both as to the class of ideas apperceived and 
as to the direction of their organization. 

One of the common axioms of general method deserves 
some attention here. We speak of proceeding from the 



212 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

concrete and applied to the abstract in secondary teaching. 
While it is just as necessary here as elsewhere in the edu- 
cative process to remember this axiom, yet it seems to be 
in the nature of things that the abstract should receive a 
larger share of attention than in preceding stages. By 
abstract is meant theory as distinguished from concrete 
experiences. The introduction of new phases of knowl- 
edge, or new thought processes, in a pedagogical way, 
requires that they have their beginning in some knowledge 
or process already within the mental grasp of the pupil. 
It is a mistake to suppose, however, that the youth is to be 
greatly profited by lingering too long in the region either 
of this previous experience or of the new applications to 
be made of the thought experiences he is undergoing. 
He must come to believe that there are some reaches of 
thought worth while whose application to everyday living 
is now beyond his ken. Nay, more, he must learn to find 
his joy in the subject for its own sake. He must isolate 
his mind in it, at times, from other subjects and other 
interests. In this way only is he to acquire that quality 
which makes true art possible, or renders the mind capa- 
ble of the greater constructive power which later and 
larger experiences will demand. 

In a consideration of this process of isolation, however, 
and especially in any critical observation of the teacher's 
part in it, it is desirable to keep in mind the fact that the 
real value of teaching is to be estimated in terms of the 
concrete life of pupils rather than in terms of abstract fac- 
ulty training. It is not in any fine-spun process of reason- 
ing, certainly not in the development of memory, that we 
are to seek to test the acquisition of a given group of 
pupils. It is rather in the degree to which the individual 
pupil has acquired the power to adjust himself to those 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 213 

elements of life which may be said to constitute his envi- 
ronment. 

VIII. Welton's Analysis of Method 

"It is the very essence of effective teaching," says 
Welton, **to awaken desire and evoke purpose." The 
same author gives us the following excellent points in the 
character of good method : — 

(i) Teachers must inspire pupils to purposeful effort. 

(2) Must clearly apprehend the end sought. 

^3) Must be prompt in beginning. 

(4) Must observe an orderly process. 

(5) Must know the kind of mental effort needed and 
stimulate to that effort. 

(6) Must secure effective results, i.e. the development 
of power. This may be shown in any evidence of enrich- 
ment of the pupil's life. The test of effectiveness must be 
appropriate to the matter tested.^ 

IX. Method of Special Subjects; Welton's Classi- 
fication 

We may now turn to a discussion of method as it is to 
be determined by the nature of the subject taught, or 
special method. Some attention has already been given in 
another place ^ to the more general aspects of these types 
of method. We have found that each subject bears its 
own peculiar relationship to the process of mental devel- 
opment. In general it may be said that some subjects 
transmit intellectual experiences, others emotional, while 
others still have as their chief purpose the cultivation of 
skill. Probably in most cases these three, or at least the 

* Cf. chapter on " Examinations, Promotions, and Graduation." 
2 Cf. Chapter VII, " The Program of Studies." 



214 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

first two elements, will be found blended. Yet we may 
say with Welton again that each has its predominant fea- 
ture. Using this ground of distinction, he gives us four 
classes of lessons : — 

(i) Information lessons which are predominantly per- 
ceptual. 

(2) Lessons for the development of theories and general 
ideas which are conceptual and inductive. 

(3) Lessons requiring the use and application of acquired 
knowledge, also conceptual, but deductive rather than in- 
ductive. 

(4) Lessons developing constructive and executive skill, 
with the mental processes imitative or imaginative, and 
finding expression in some form of physical activity. 

To these four we may add a fifth by saying that some 
subjects, like music and literature, are distinctively emo- 
tional, although furnishing incidental occasion for the 
exercise of faculties developed in other studies.^ 

It may readily be seen that by the use of some such 
classification as the above each subject may be analyzed 
into its dominant and subordinate features, and that such 
analysis will readily furnish a key to the principles of gen- 
eral method that will best apply in a particular case. Under 
the first class we shall find a minimum of work of second- 
ary grade. Observational science, the concrete study of 
history as seen in local institutions and in historical re- 
mains, and the objective study of art in the form of paint- 
ing, tapestries, sculpture, and architecture, all have some 
place in high school training. The use of pictures in the 
study of history and literature, and the microscopic pro- 
jection in science belong in the same class. 

1 Cf. Welton's chapter on " The Teaching of Music," as prepared by R. T. White in 
" Principles and Methods of Teaching." 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 215 

Under class second would come most of laboratory and 
much of field work in science where rightly conducted, so as 
really to represent the inductive method ; and considerable 
work in history and geography, especially where data de- 
rived from these subjects are used as a basis for establish- 
ing some ethical or economic theory or principle. In this 
sense considerable of the work in the study of literature 
might also become inductive. In the science work, espe- 
cially, the heuristic method will prevail, although not neces- 
sarily to an exclusive extent ; nor need it be said that this 
method belongs alone to science, for it may also find appli- 
cation in the type of historical study above referred to. 
This, however, is not common practice. 

The third class of lessons will include, especially, mathe- 
matics ; it may also include much of the instruction given 
in grammar in the teaching of a foreign language. Sec- 
ondarily it will include much of the work in history of an 
ordinary type, together with that part of science work 
which may be considered instructional and deductively 
developmental as distinguished from inductive. It is in 
the discriminative use of these two types of work in science 
and history, according to the particular object in view, that 
the real skill of the teacher will be displayed. 

Under the fourth class will be included composition, oral 
reading for expression of thought and feeling, drawing and 
art work as regards technique, manual training in its vari- 
ous forms, and physical training for rhythmical action or 
for any form of expression. 

X. Method in Imparting Ethical and ^Esthetical 

Truth 

The fifth class, which we have added to those given by 
Welton, represents a rather important element, though one 



2l6 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

which is often neglected in discussions of method. Feel- 
ing and emotion other than that engendered by ordinary 
intellectual or physical experiences rightly occupy a large 
place in the educative process, and particularly that of the 
secondary school. We are told that the aesthetic lies very 
close to the ethical. Certainly this is true in music, in art, 
in literature, all of which occupy a rather large place in 
the field of youthful interests. 

And what are we to say of method when it comes to the 
imparting of the aesthetic quality that must go along with 
the teaching of these subjects ? Perhaps it is because of 
the very elusiveness of those qualities which give aesthetic 
significance that we hesitate to discuss any such thing as 
method when referring to them. As well think of analyz- 
ing the perfume of the rose, one may say, as to think of a 
method of imparting the pleasurable state of consciousness 
which goes along with music that is ravishingly sweet, with 
art that is exquisitely beautiful, or with literature that 
pleases at the same time that it exalts. Yet there is a very 
profound sense in which method is related to the successful 
imparting of these experiences. This is true not so much 
in a positive as in a negative sense. It is possible so to 
teach music, or art, or literature as to rob each of that 
peculiar quality which is alone the excuse for teaching it. 
This is truly a paradoxical statement ; for really to Uac/i 
means to impart the essential qualities. It is the blunder- 
ing of those who have never yet come to understand the 
nature of the high qualities with which they deal to which 
we have reference here. 

There is a method of teaching literature that will not 
rob it of its beauty and make of it a thing despised. 
There is another method which will analyze all the beauty 
out of it and make it stale and unprofitable stuff. "The 



METHOD AS APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 217 

letter killeth, the spirit maketh alive," is true of this, as of 
the teaching of all subjects of a kindred nature. Is it not 
possible that the chief point to the method in such teaching 
is in the timeliness of presentation ? When we speak of 
interest and motive on the part of the pupil, do we not im- 
ply by this a mental preparedness for the step to be taken, 
the experience to be entered upon ? It is the teacher who 
can lead his class to the right point, to that vantage-ground 
from which the lights and shades of the picture, the mental 
imagery, will most readily catch the eye and kindle the 
soul, that is the only element of method that is worth 
while in this case. None but the teacher who has first 
and often experienced such a soul kindling can ever lead 
the way. Others may walk that way reading the sign- 
boards, but seeing no beauty ; and few, if any, who follow 
such a leader will come away refreshed. 

Let us illustrate by an incident seemingly foreign to our 
theme. A boy of twelve, with his father as guide, visited 
the great World's Fair at St. Louis. During one of the 
early days at the fair the fine arts building was visited, 
but the boy soon tired of the pictures. One after the 
other, "the Pike," the Boer War, the Filipinos, the 
great industrial exhibits, the* various national buildings, 
claimed attention. Near the close of a ten days' visit 
they returned again to the fine arts building. This time 
the boy lingered over the finer paintings, filled with won- 
der and delight at each beautiful or striking subject. 
Repeatedly he expressed his surprise that men could paint 
such beautiful things, pictures 'full ^of the beauties of na- 
ture and the tragedies and exaltations of human life. 

True, the first novelty of the more striking features of 
the fair had worn off ; yet may we not justly conclude 
that much of the receptivity of the boy grew out of the 



2i8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

expanding and uplifting effect of the fair as a whole ? It 
is life, after all, that prepares us to understand the highest 
expressible things of life. Oui* method must lead that way. 
It is not the purpose in this presentation of the subject 
of method to enter into minute details as to the particular 
method of the class room in the teaching of a given subject. 
It is here, if anywhere, that the peculiar quality which 
gives individuality to teaching must have full play. It is 
enough, perhaps, to have suggested the relationship which 
a knowledge of the principles of general method, on the 
one hand, and of the predominant and subsidiary elements 
which a given subject presents, on the other, has to the 
work of the teacher of youth. After all, method, rightly 
comprehended, is a living, vital part of the teacher and the 
one taught, rather than a mere formal thing to be passed 
from hand to hand. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1 . A study of the scientific method as it is actually applied in some 
high school or group of high schools. 

2. An investigation as to what methods of presentation best succeed 
in inspiring a love for good literature. 

3. An inquiry as to the extent to which high school subjects are 
isolated, with a tabulation of results. 

4. An inquiry as to the extent to which inductive methods may 
apply to the teaching of history ; of a foreign language. 

References. — " Principles of Class Teaching," Findlay ; "The Educative Pro- 
cess," Bagley ; " Principles and Methods of Teaching," Welton ; " Elements of 
General Method," McMurry ; " Classroom Management," Bagley ; " Isolation in 
the School," Young ; "Education and Heredity," Guyau (especially Chapters IV 
and VI) ; references under Chapter VII, especially those in which the teaching of 
special subjects is treated ; " The Practice of Instruction, a Manual of Method," 
Adamson ; " Scientific Method," Edward Fry, Contemp, Rev., 87 : 383-392. 



CHAPTER XII 
EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 

I. The Problem of a Satisfactory Scheme of 
Promotions 

One of the serious problems of school management is 
that of establishing a basis for promotions that is generally 
satisfactory. Ever since the organization of high schools 
examinations have been made use of as the principal means 
to this end. The question has elicited much discussion, 
both in teachers' meetings and in educational periodicals ; 
yet, in a way, it is still open to debate. We have passed 
through various stages in practice, from regular monthly 
examinations with long-drawn-out finals in which the whole 
period of secondary work was brought under review to the 
now very common semiannual tests as a basis for record 
and promotion. Numerous evils have grown up under the 
system, such as cramming, cheating, nervous overstrain, 
inequalities in marking standards, and failing to take ac- 
count of many important elements in a pupil's progress. 
The present practice is scarcely free from any of these 
evils. 

II. Evils of Examinations 

Pupils naturally brilliant will loaf during the term's 
work believing that they can make up in a few days by 
intense study or ** cramming" for what they have thus 
neglected. The assumption is that the educational pro- 

219 



220 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

cess is one of knowledge-getting, purely, and not of regu- 
lar growth. This view on the part of the pupils is shared 
very generally by communities at large and is too often 
borne out by the nature of the tests given and the basis 
on which papers are marked. 

Other pupils who have prepared regularly will cram 
because of nervous dread of what is coming, will enter 
upon their examinations in an overwrought condition, and 
come out of them with poorer grades, perhaps, than their 
more careless fellows who have only " crammed," and with 
the further disadvantage of exhausted nerves. 

For quite similar reasons cheating is also resorted to. 
Cases have been known where the honors of a class have 
gone to one who never could have accomplished honestly 
the work which his cheating has made to appear first class. 

In a system where the same groups of pupils are esti- 
mated by a number of different teachers the difficulty of 
inequality in the marking standards used is sure to arise. 
There seems to be no possible way of equating these stand- 
ards. Of course we may argue that it is as fair for one as 
for another ; but even this cannot always be true. It not 
infrequently happens that a failure under one teacher will 
be worth as much as a reasonably good passing grade under 
another. Then, too, one teacher may mark purely on a 
quantitative basis, comparing the results of one pupil's 
work with those of another who may have written more 
correct answers, but who has neither worked so hard nor 
grown so much in the period covered. 

This failure to take account of all elements in a pupil's 
progress is one of the most common and at the same 
time most harmful results of written examinations. It is 
this fact which will frequently account for failure in prac- 
tical life on the part of honor pupils, while often the pupil 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 221 

of only average ability according to his school record will 
easily out-distance the honor pupil. 

In connection with the system of examinations which 
we have thus briefly characterized, the very common prac- 
tice has been to record a pupil's progress purely as a quan- 
titative fact. It is so many per cent. Now it is doubtless 
true that some careful teachers might justly read into these 
"grades" something more than the mere proportion of 
correct answers to the series of questions set for the 
examination. With most of us, however, it is far easier 
and more likely to be true that we stop short of everything 
but the mere quantitative element. 

It requires but a brief analysis of the idea of progress in 
school work to show that there are other elements to be 
considered. The correct answering of a certain number of 
questions merely marks the memory value of the pupil. 
Other things which the careful teacher will desire to test 
are clearness of conception, reasoning ability, nice discern- 
ment, constructive power. These things he seeks to know 
not merely as a given pupil may rank with others, but as 
he shows actual gain over his own earlier condition. Of 
course it is quite possible to express all these things in a 
quantitative form ; but the tendency is to overlook most of 
them where all is made to depend on a written test, the re- 
sults of which are expressed in per cents. The fact that 
many teachers insist on marking in other terms than per 
cents is simply a revolt of the mind against the idea that 
quantity alone is to be considered in estimating the prog- 
ress which a pupil has made. 

III. Common Fallacies 

Some very common fallacies are cherished by the schools 
as a result of the prevailing practice in regard to grading 



222 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION" 

pupils on their work. These fallacies usually affect the 
entire community as well as the school. They have, indeed, 
passed into the realm of the traditional, and are therefore 
destined to persist for a long time to come. 

One of these fallacies is that the highest grade marks 
must, of necessity, show the best training. The relative 
correctness of such an assumption, of course, depends upon 
the fairness of the teachers' estimates of the work done by 
a given group. In many schools this estimate is based only 
partially upon examination results. The teachers' judg- 
ment of individual pupils based on a careful and continu- 
ous observation of their work is made an important factor. 
Where this is the practice, it seems reasonable to expect 
that the resulting grades will come much nearer to repre- 
senting the actual progress made. 

Another fallacy which persistently clings to the system 
is that a failure, quantitatively, disquahfies a pupil. In a 
majority of cases this may be found to be true. But any 
careful observer of a system of grading based on examina- 
tions could point out numerous cases where such results 
have had apparently little if any relationship to the pupil's 
real ability to go forward. This consideration seems to 
emphasize the great necessity on the part of those admin- 
istering our schools of placing every possible safeguard 
against such cases of evident injustice. 

A third fallacy is that a pupil's real capability is neces- 
sarily tested by a comparative rating in his class. Take, 
for instance, the case of a pupil to whom the mastery of a 
given subject comes easily. With comparatively little ef- 
fort he is able to show results, both in class work and in 
examinations, which readily place him at the head of his 
class. Were he to put forth the same effort required by 
some of his fellows to even keep from failure he would 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 223 

readily accomplish, perhaps, double the amount of work 
covered by the class as a whole. This simple fact seems 
to have been long in getting to the surface of pedagogical 
thought. It is just coming to the fore as a proper subject 
for investigation and discussion in the form of such propo- 
sitions as " What to do with our unusually bright pupils." 
We might also consider the opposite type of a pupil 
who, when compared with his class, seems to be weak, yet 
who, if carefully studied, may be found to be acquiring 
power at a much greater rate of speed than his mere com- 
parative ranking would ever suggest. In this field of 
human effort as well as at the stadium it is necessary to 
consider the handicap in determining the real power of 
the contestant. 

IV. Necessity for Periodical Records of Work 

Whatever may be the difficulties in the way of correctly 
estimating and recording the progress made by pupils in 
their school work we must not lose sight of the fact that 
there are very good reasons why such records should be 
made periodically as the work advances. First of all there 
must be some such basis for classifying the pupils. Even 
in the same high school grade this may be true. Many 
teachers prefer to class pupils of about equal working 
ability together in order to admit of the accomplishment of 
a fair amount of work for all. Then there is always the 
necessity, under our graded system, of classifying for pur- 
poses of promotion. Where a large number of pupils is 
concerned, this can hardly be done without some device for 
estimating the work of all who may be eligible to a certain 
grade by a common standard. This is most commonly 
thought of as the purpose of all testing and recording of 
results. 



224 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Again, the record which a pupil has made in school, 
especially high school, may have an important bearing on 
his future career. This is particularly apt to be the case 
when a pupil enters college or seeks a professional train- 
ing. For this reason it is best that a pretty definite record 
be kept of the nature and amount of work accomplished 
by each individual. 

There are points in the progress of work in any school 
at which it is found desirable to introduce changes in the 
matter and method of teaching a given subject in order to 
adapt it to the growth attained by study and by the greater 
maturity due to increase of age. To this purpose examina- 
tions and the recording of results readily lend themselves. 
Such an occasion furnishes an opportunity for rounding 
out a piece of work along some definite line previous to 
entering upon a different field of study requiring not only 
a change in treatment, but a change in the point of view 
which the pupil is expected to take. The written exami- 
nation often serves an excellent purpose in this connec- 
tion. It furnishes one of the best means of training to 
definiteness of thinking as well as of fixing more firmly 
in memory the content of what has been worked over. 

Aside from the above considerations there is another 
very good reason for keeping such a periodic record. In 
any given field of human effort, if it is to be really effective, 
it is necessary that there be some ideal to be attained. Of 
course the highest ideals are the mastery of truth and the 
normal development of self. There are those who believe 
that to do one's best in study no incentive should be neces- 
sary other than the love of truth for its own sake and mak- 
ing the best of one's capabilities. No doubt it is true in 
many cases that other and lower incentives are too fre- 
quently used in our schools. Further we shall all doubtless 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 225 

agree that the incentive of good grades has been greatly- 
overworked in the past and is much too prominent in the 
present. Nevertheless there are many boys and girls with 
imaginations too weak to be much attracted by results too 
far off or too abstract. They need the stimulus of some- 
thing more concrete and nearer at hand to enable them to 
accompHsh anything like satisfactory results. To such 
pupils the system of grading the work rather frequently 
will appeal, often to the extent of developing in them keen 
interest in the real things with which they are dealing. 

In all this we are constantly reminded of the necessity 
of making our appeals to individual pupils rather than to 
entire classes or groups. In order to do this the well- 
regulated school will offer not one, but many incentives, so 
that a larger number shall feel the stimulus and speedily 
respond to it. 

V. Methods of Procedure 

Having thus pointed out some of the difficulties and 
necessities of the case, let us now turn to a consideration 
of a method of procedure best calculated to avoid the diffi- 
culties and at the same time provide for the necessities. 
In the first place we assume that the real purpose is to 
take note of individual progress and to secure results for 
each individual as nearly commensurate with his capabili- 
ties as possible. To do this we must seek to make the 
measure of progress absolute rather than relative ; that is, 
we are to measure the individual pupil's present working 
ability and character as a student with what it was at the 
time of starting or at the last accounting. 

It is taken for granted, of course, that a fairly just classi- 
fication was provided for at the starting point, whether at 
entrance to the secondary work or farther on in the course. 



226 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Now it is just here that those who are always arguing for 
the advantages of the competitive element in examinations 
seem to be most in error. They tell us that the world calls 
constantly for competition and that our students should 
therefore be trained to it in the schools. This sounds well 
enough ; but an examination of the facts will show that by 
the purely competitive system the competition is very soon 
likely to be limited to two or three individuals while the 
rest of the group drop back into a steady pace, slackened, 
if anything, by the consciousness of early defeat. Put the 
student in competition with himself and let him understand 
that any preference shown will be to the one who does the 
best in the way of individual growth, and we come nearer 
to the real conditions marking success or failure in the 
world. We all naturally applaud most the man who wins 
in spite of a handicap. 

At first thought the teacher will say that the only feas- 
ible basis for marking the pupils of a class is by a compara- 
tive scale. To those who have formed the habit of thinking 
of grades in this way the plan of comparing the individual 
with himself is rather difficult. The real trouble is largely 
one of mental attitude on the part of the teacher. It leads 
almost certainly to a habit of carelessness as to the growth 
of individuals, — a thing which all thoughtful teachers de- 
cry. All that is necessary in order to put in practice the 
system of absolute marking of progress is to estabhsh a 
starting point for each individual from which to measure. 

We say that entrance to high school calls for a certain 
training in school arts ; in historical knowledge and his- 
torical sense; in the habit of observing nature and in an 
open-minded attitude toward all truth ; in the power to rea- 
son about the simpler and more fundamental principles of 
mathematics, the physical world, and the institutional life 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 227 

about us. Very well, let us proceed at once to get the 
measure of each individual by these standards, to the best 
of our ability, and set it down for future reference. Such 
a plan of taking account of the present state of mind of 
the members of a class works well in many ways. It is a 
common error among teachers that they take too much for 
granted as to what the previous training of pupils should 
have accomplished. And when weak spots begin to occur 
in this presupposed learning, the teacher of the preceding 
grade or year is soundly berated for doing such poor work. 
Having started fairly with what the pupils really know, 
when the next testing time comes, let us set down, in some 
form agreed upon, our estimate of each individual's prog- 
ress as compared with his status at the beginning. This 
presumes, of course, that we have kept a rather close watch 
upon what each individual has been doing in the meantime, 
and if our memories are not trustworthy, we have made notes 
from time to time of these observations, just as any true 
scientist should. One of the immediate and most far-reach- 
ing results of such a scheme is bound to be a more careful 
adjustment of each individual's work. Some pupils who, 
for one reason or another, are capable of more rapid prog- 
ress than others, have found places in a given group. If 
they are to remain in the group, they need to have a wider 
range of work than other pupils in the same subject in 
order to make their normal growth. If, on the other hand, 
they are to continue their more rapid forward movement, 
their work should be so planned as to enable them to gain 
an earlier promotion to the next group ahead. This may 
be accomplished through special promotion or by permitting 
those who are capable to carry an extra subject in advance 
of their class. A still more desirable method of dealing with 
such special cases is to find for them some more extensive 



228 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

treatment of such phases of the subject studied as will best 
lend themselves to the plan. This will enable the brighter 
pupils, while still keeping pace with the general movement 
of the class, to get a much fuller knowledge of the matter 
in hand, and thus fit them better for their future work in 
life or college, as the case may be. 

It is only by some such plan that the schools can ever do 
for the most capable pupils all that ought to be done in order 
to secure to them and to society the full advantage of their 
greater strength. This will be true whether the individual 
starts under a handicap or with special advantage due to 
early training, superior home conditions, or other cause. 
Nor is it to be supposed that such a plan of procedure will 
work any hardship to the less capable. They will still 
have the stimulus of observing what those stronger than 
they may accomplish when at their best. What is more 
important still, they will have more of the personal atten- 
tion of the teacher ; and under this more careful guidance 
most of their imaginary difficulties and some real ones will 
be removed. Thus they, too, will be surer of attaining to 
the utmost of their capabilities, and society will again be 
the gainer. 

We have already intimated that the tests should be for 
quality as well as quantity. Some subjects will be found 
to predominate in the quantitative, others in the qualitative. 
Here again there is demanded a careful analysis of each 
subject and the manner of its treatment as to what results 
are to be looked for in the pupils. This is only saying 
that the materials of education should be adapted to the 
ends in view, and that this adaptation should be, as far as 
possible, an individual matter. 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 229 

VI. Preparation of Examination Questions 

When it comes to the preparation of questions for writ- 
ten tests, the teacher will have need for a full and compre- 
hensive grasp of the field over which the pupils have 
worked in the period covered by a given test. Too fre- 
quently the making of such questions is left to be done on 
the spur of the moment, or rather, until dire necessity de- 
mands their presentation. As a matter of fact they should 
call for more careful thought even than the preparation of 
a new lesson to be presented. First the wording of the 
questions should be clear and so as to make the elements 
required in the answer unmistakable. Then the questions 
should be carefully chosen with reference to the help the 
answers are likely to give in determining all the values 
represented in the progress of the pupils which written 
tests can be made to express. Here is where a thorough 
review of the ground passed over, and what is of still greater 
importance, the work really accomplished, becomes abso- 
lutely necessary to the making of a proper set of questions. 
It is evident enough that such a thing must require time 
for careful thought. The only safe plan for most teachers 
is to keep a pretty full biographical record of the class as 
a basis for this phase of the work. 

Some teachers make it a point to jot down from time to 
time the points on which tests are to be made, so that when 
the occasion comes for the preparation of questions, there 
will be plenty of material at hand, with little chance for 
omission of any important matter or for the inclusion of 
something that has not been thoroughly worked out. On 
the latter point, if a class has been left with an open field 
for investigation at any period of the work with the definite 
understanding that the members are to be held responsible 



230 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

without further class discussion, of course the teacher will 
not fail to make this a part of the test work. Otherwise 
very careless habits of study will be developed. 

The test is not the place for the presentation of unusually 
hard problems or obscure questions. These may well form 
a part of class training ; but when it comes to the round-up, 
each pupil should feel that he is given a fair chance to ex- 
press himself along the lines of the simple development of 
the fundamental principles and classifications involved. At 
the same time the questions presented should be different 
in form from those formulated in connection with class 
work, or of such a nature as to avoid making the test 
chiefly an effort of memory. 

VII. Times of Testing 

The time of testing should be determined more by the 
movement in a given field of study or exercise than by any 
arbitrary division of the school year. First of all there 
should be the continuous observation of individuals men- 
tioned above with records of these. By this is not meant 
the practice of marking individual recitations. Very few 
teachers, if any, can do this in such a way as to give it 
the broad significance it should carry with it if it is to 
express the pupil's progress. The kind of record referred 
to is one which would frequently cover more than a single 
recitation, and would be expressed in a definite statement 
or characterization rather than in per cents or letters. 
Such a description of the pupil's progress should indicate 
the development of traits, habits of study, temperamental 
qualities, and whatever will aid in an intelligent estimate 
of final results of his high school education. Then there 
is a time when it is best to have a general round-up of the 
work. This is when a closely related field of study has 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 231 

been covered and it is proposed to begin over, in a sense, 
with a topic not so closely related. It is at such points 
that reviews are best; and the review, rightly conducted, 
offers the very best of opportunity for making careful 
observations of individuals. Such occasions, with the in- 
tervening records of data from continuous observations, 
will furnish ample basis for determining a pupil's record 
at any time, and will not interfere in the least with any 
arbitrary scheme of promotions such as the semiannual 
scheme. In the handling of a large school or system of 
schools there must be some such mode of procedure with 
regard to the general forward movement of classes. This 
forward movement, however, is not necessarily to be con- 
sidered as determining the only time, and hence the method, 
by which pupils are to be graded for promotion. 

VIII. Promotions 

These promotions in actual practice are either annual, 
semiannual, or special. Under the scheme above outlined 
there would probably be considerable use made of the 
special promotion. Whether the annual or semiannual 
plan were in force would make little difference in other 
respects. It is easy to see, however, that the scheme sug- 
gested of providing for special advancements of the more 
capable ones would work much more readily with the semi- 
annual scheme of class movements. The intervals to be 
made up would be only half as long as in the case of the 
annual movements. 

To summarize, then, a good scheme for marking pupils 
as a basis for classifying and promoting is as fol- 
lows : — 

I. Determine at the start the pupil's working qualities 
as indicated by his mastery of the arts involved, the knowl- 



232 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

edge required for further progress, and his clearness of 
vision and strength and accuracy of thinking. 

2. Observe his further progress along these lines as 
related to his present work, as well as his mastery of new 
principles and the general unfolding of his character, and 
make a record of the same in the form of memoranda for 
future reference. 

3. From time to time, as the work in a given subject 
favors, give reviews, and follow these by written tests or 
examinations in order to get further data as a basis for 
marking. 

4. Whatever scheme of notation may be used for mark- 
ing, make sure that the qualitative as well as quantitative 
in the pupils' work is fully represented in it. 

The whole problem of promotions is one calling for 
study and careful adjustment. In a recent investigation 
conducted by the Brooklyn Teachers* Association an at- 
tempt was made to find out whether promotions are usually 
made by subjects or by grades. Out of 554 definite replies 
261 answered "by subjects" and 293 "by grades." To 
the question " Should the brilliant student be kept back 
with the dull student.?" out of 588 definite replies 53 
answered "yes" and 535 "no."^ Certainly no one would 
argue for a moment on this point with reference to the 
promotion of high school students. 

The discussion really involves the whole question of 
promotions, including those of the elementary schools. 
We have spoken above of the annual and semiannual 
promotions. The carrying into effect of the semiannual 
promotion involves some very serious difficulties. Of 
course in a large system of schools it does not matter so 
much, although even then the problem presents itself of 

1 See report of the president of the association for 1906-1907. 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 233 

additional room and extra teachers. It requires, also, the 
adjustment of courses in the high school to meet the needs 
of classes separated only by a half year. As has already 
been pointed out, the relative shortness of intervening 
periods between classes is a distinct advantage in the case 
of special promotions. A careful and extended study of 
this problem leads to the conclusion that most of the dif- 
ficulties attendant upon promotions may be obviated by 
very close attention to the forward movement of individual 
pupils in the lower grades. Such forward movements 
should be made only when there is evidence of sufficient 
strength to enable the pupil to sustain himself in the 
advanced grade without too great strain. 

By a well-supervised and judicious use of the special 
promotion it is quite possible in a small school system to 
receive two entering classes each year into the first grade 
of the elementary school and to promote but one class 
each year to the high school. In such cases the eighth 
grade will not always come out at just the same place; 
but any extra time such a class may have may well be 
spent upon some more intensive work during the last half 
of the eighth-grade program. 

In the larger school system where there is efficient 
supervision the combined use of the special promotion and 
the semiannual class movement is probably best. Where 
the supervision is efficient and special cases are handled judi- 
ciously, there will be very little trouble about delinquents. 

Some have advocated the plan of parallel streams 
throughout the school, so that all pupils may move ahead 
by subjects. This is easy enough in the high school where 
the almost universal practice is to promote by subjects. 
In the lower grades, however, where the school arts are 
uppermost, this is not so simple a matter. It is greatly 



234 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

simplified in schools where the grammar grades work on 
the departmental plan. 

There is good reason to believe that with especial care 
in the matter of judging pupils' work throughout all 
grades on some such basis as has been described above 
for high schools, it will be found entirely practicable to 
manage the forward movements of pupils under a good 
working classification by taking care of the specials all 
the time and of the residuum semiannually. 

IX. Graduation 

There comes a time in every school where the last 
period following the last forward movement is completed. 
At this point the prevailing custom is to graduate the 
pupils. This is an important occasion both for the school 
and for the individual. In fact it concerns more or less 
deeply the whole community. To the school it means the 
loss of a group of pupils who have come to represent in 
the school the results of four or more years of training. 
In this respect they are, or may be, one of the chief incen- 
tives to persistent effort on the part of lower classes in the 
school. More than this, they stand to the community and 
to the world as illustrating what the training and influence 
of that particular school is worth. On this account it is 
desirable that a high standard of work be made the basis 
for such stamping of public approval as graduation signi- 
fies. Nothing so weakens the work of a school as to per- 
mit graduation on the part of those who have not done 
the prescribed amount of work in a satisfactory manner. 
In such cases certificates may be given indicating the exact 
nature and amount of work accomplished, but the diploma 
of the school should go only to those who have fully and 
satisfactorily completed all requirements. 



EXAMINATIONS, PROMOTIONS, AND GRADUATION 235 

To the individual the completion of the high school 
curriculum marks a more or less abrupt change in his out- 
look on life. Whether this completion of a high school 
course is to close his school days or to be followed by 
further preparation at college, the individual is done with 
the home school, and very likely with the home surround- 
ings, as things go in American life. In either case his 
success or failure must rest largely in the genuineness 
of the preparation which his home school has afforded 
him. There is no time for reconsideration. 

To the community at large this change may mean the 
gaining of good citizens fairly equipped for their duties as 
such. It may mean the loss of many young and growing 
members going out to seek a better field of action or 
further study. Or it may mean a sense of the compara- 
tive futility of the effort put forth in maintaining a high 
school when little remains at the end in recompense for 
the outlay, and, as in case of many individuals, the sacri- 
fice which this effort has cost. 

The occasion, then, is an opportunity, where the school 
conditions are right, and may well be utilized by school 
authorities for impressing those things which lie closest to 
the interests of education. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. An investigation as to the extent to which present practice in 
grading high school work is purely quantitative. 

2. A study of the present methods in use of conducting high school 
examinations. 

3. To what extent is provision made in our high schools for enabling 
the naturally strong students to do their best ? 

4. An examination into the practice of marking pupils on daily 
recitations, {a) as to its justness, and {b) as to its effect on the 
recitation. 



236 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

5. A study of the present tendencies in regard to high school 
graduation. 

References. — " Promotions and Examinations in Graded Schools," E. E. White, 
published as '* Circular of Information," 1891, by Bureau of Education ; " Examina- 
tions, Grades, and Credits," J. McKeen Cattell, Popular Science Monthly, 66 : 367 ; 
" Standard Examinations for Non-College Pupils," School Review, 14 : 754 ; Arti- 
cles in N. E. A. Reports as follows : " Examinations as Tests for Promotion," 
H. S. Tarbell, 1887, W. H. Maxwell, 1890; "Examinations for Promotion in 
the PubHc Schools," W. DeW. Hyde, 1889 ; " The Use and Control of Examina- 
tions," A. T. Hadley, 1901; "Promotions and Grading," W. W. Chalmers, 1899; 
Report of Committee on Examinations, 1886. " A Rational System of Education 
and Promotion," Garber, Education, <2r] : 288-302 ; " Liberating the Lower Educa- 
tion," Hartwell, School Review, 15: 436-458, also same author, pp. 184-196. 



CHAPTER XIII 

RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES AND 
UNIVERSITIES 

This is a natural sequence to the discussion of the pre- 
ceding chapter and offers some very good grounds for 
special consideration here. The whole matter of college 
entrance requirements and of what the high schools should 
do in the case is before us. Just at the present time 
opinions in regard to these requirements differ widely 
among different types of institutions so far as the colleges 
and universities are concerned. The great majority of the 
larger high schools, situated in communities where there 
are widening local demands placed upon them, are insist- 
ing upon a wider recognition of high school work, includ- 
ing what have been called vocational subjects. Taken all 
together the situation is one calling for earnest delibera- 
tion on the part of those who have to do with the adminis- 
tration of the two types of institutions involved. As 
Professor Thorndike ^ has pointed out, there is need for 
the scientific study of the problem of college entrance. 

The conditions urge haste, but the importance and far- 
reaching influence of the decisions to be reached render 
too great haste in our conclusions a real danger. The 
traditional development of the standards which have here- 
tofore been set up by the colleges are stubborn things. 
Whether this stubbornness is to the interest of right or 

1 See Science t 23: 839-844. 
237 



238 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

wrong is a matter on which no one can, as yet, do very 
much more than to dogmatize. 

I. Historical Survey of Entrance Requirements 

In order to get the problem before us let us take a brief 
survey of the historical development lying back of the 
whole matter. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth 
century the requirements for entrance to college in this 
country were a knowledge of Latin, including the ability 
to translate about what is now covered by a four-year high 
school course; a knowledge of ordinary Greek, such as 
the Greek Testament; and, with most colleges, a knowl- 
edge of arithmetic. With the exception of Harvard these 
requirements of the colleges changed but little during most 
of the first quarter of the nineteenth century. 

The preparatory schools of the time were grammar 
schools and academies. According to Broome ^ the sub- 
jects taught in the academies were about as follows : " The 
* three R's,' English grammar, Latin, Greek, geography, 
algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, astronomy, music, 
composition, oratory, bookkeeping, logic, and virtue." 

The organization of the Boston English High School in 

, 1 82 1 marks the initiation of a movement which was felt at 

;the same time by the colleges. This was an economic 

■ movement due to the rapid development which came as a 

sequence to national independence. It was a movement 

similar to that which led to the establishment of the Real- 

schulen in Europe, and is paralleled to-day by the movement 

due to the results of the application of science to modern 

industries. The pressure of this movement became so 

strong that by about the middle of the nineteenth century 

the colleges were most of them offering parallel courses 

^ " College Admission Requirements," p. 41, note 2. 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 239 

which showed a strong tendency toward the broadening of 
the college curriculum in the interests of the practical 
needs of the people. 

Then came the rise of the state higher institutions pro- 
viding for the training of men in the more fundamental 
technical lines, as agriculture, engineering, law, medicine, 
commerce. 

Meanwhile the high schools were multiplying. Boston 
was followed in 1838 by Philadelphia. Others came rap- 
idly, and by i860 Dr. Harris tells us there were forty 
high schools in the country. In the ten years following 
this number was quadrupled; and by 1880 the number 
had reached 800. Now there are several states having 
half that number or more. We have already traced the 
rapid changes in the high school curriculum in the first 
chapter. 

From the original one-course plan of the high school the 
development first to parallel courses and then to wide elec- 
tion in order to meet the insistent local demands has been 
very rapid. The colleges have sought to adapt themselves 
to the new demands by offering parallel courses, with wide 
election, and with the granting of several degrees where at 
first only the Bachelor of Arts degree was given. Among 
these new degrees, with considerable variation among insti- 
tutions as to definitions and requirements, have appeared 
the degrees of Bachelor of Philosophy, Bachelor of Letters, 
and Bachelor of Science. The tendency is now to confine 
these to the A. B. and B. S. degrees with a much greater 
uniformity of definition. This has been one of the means 
adopted by the colleges in order to provide a way for those 
trained in the broader curriculum of the high schools to get 
into college. The result has been a tremendous strain 
upon all educational resources. 



240 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

II. The Problem before the High Schools 

Meantime, the colleges have advanced rapidly the 
quantity of work required for college entrance. These 
requirements have risen from the equivalent of eight 
or nine units to from fourteen to sixteen units of 
high school work. This means practically everything 
in a complete four years* course in the high school. 
In the face of these advancements, which apply alike 
in quantity for nearly all college courses, the high 
schools are now confronted with a strong popular de- 
mand for a much wider range of work in vocational 
subjects. iCommerce, the manual arts, agriculture, and 
domestic scleHce^aKe-^ealrling for a place in the schools 
of the people. 

There is general agreement that the public high school, 
in whatever it offers, should give an equal chance to all. 
If this is done, then these various vocational lines must be 
offered in each high school or system of schools, under a 
unified organization. Such a plan is bound to bring some 
confusion in results as measured by present standards of* 
college entrances. 

III. What is to be the Attitude of the 
Colleges } 

In the face of this new aspect of the problem which they 
have been compelled to face, undoubtedly at a disadvantage 
so far as the real immediate advancement of their work 
is concerned, during the last three quarters of a century, 
what is to be the attitude of the colleges.? Are the 
interests represented in college preparation, on the one 
hand, and preparation for a vocation, on the other, so 
widely at variance that a common ground of agreement 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 241 

may not be found? Is President Hadley, for instance, 
justified in saying that "we may as well recognize the fact 
that there is a real conflict of interests between the pupils 
that are not going any further and those that are ? " ^ By 
making the program of studies to meet the demands of our 
social and industrial life, are we thus to impede the way 
for the many because we believe that they are not likely 
to seek admission to college ? 

More and more the country is looking to the high 
schools as the preparatory schools of the universities. We 
readily recognize the double function of these schools, 
although there is a definite tendency toward equalization 
of the numbers who do not go to college after the high 
school and the numbers who do. Suppose the colleges 
prescribe eleven or twelve of the units required for en- 
trance. Would there be any distinct loss to the college 
student who might fill in any four or five additional units 
if the work was well done in the high schools ? Let us 
take some imaginary -cases. Here is a college which is 
strictly literary, holding to the classical basis for the A. B. 
degree. Suppose such an institution should prescribe 
the following: English three units, mathematics three 
units, Latin four units, science one unit, history one 
unit, thus making twelve units. Would it make any 
material difference what the other four units of high 
school work might be if only the training were thorough 
and sound ? 

Take another case of a modern science and arts 
course leading to the A. B. degree. Let the college 
prescribe three units of English, three units of mathe- 
matics, three units of modern language other than Eng- 
lish, two units of science, and one unit of history, thus 

1 In " Fundamental Requirements of School Education," 



242 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

again aggregating twelve units. Need there be any anx- 
iety whatever as to the other four units, provided they are 
well taught? 

A similar course, with, perhaps, some slight variation, 
arranged as a technical course leading to the degree of 
B. S. will bring us to a similar conclusion. In each of these 
hypothetical cases there may be opportunity for four years 
of vocational study, or one fourth of the entire group in 
the high school program. Are not the four years of train- 
ing with the maturity and the power acquired about the 
most important thing? How many things learned in 
the high school are absolutely essential to the beginning 
of courses in the freshman year of undergraduate work 
in the best of our universities ? We may grant elementary 
mathematics, a good secondary training in English, with 
at least enough of foreign language to have mastered the 
essentials of grammar and to have acquired a fairly good 
foundation for a vocabulary. All other lines of work may 
be as well or better begun in the college if the student has 
working ability and is sufficiently mature in mind. 

IV. Present Practice of State Universities 

The following facts in regard to the present practice of 
ten state universities of the North Central group with 
regard to entrance requirements will show plainly the 
present situation in such institutions. These tables are 
compiled from the catalogues of these schools issued 
in 1908: — 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 243 



TABLE I 

Entrance Requirements for the College of Literature, 

Science, and Arts 





ii 
11 

PS Q 


UNITS PRESCRIBED 


ELECTIVE 


UNIVERSITY OF 






i 
















X 

1 


si 


^ 


{x 


8 


i 


Of« 


Vocational Subjects 




z 


n 


H 


r 


In 


M 


h' 








0^ 


^ 


S 


^ 


w 


a 


^ 


a 




Illinois" . . . 


15 


3 


2| 


3 


I 




9i 


5i 


Manual Training i, 
Commercial Geography ^ 


Indiana . . . 


16 


3 


3 


3 


I 


I 


II 


5 


Any taught 
in High School 


Iowa .... 


15 


3 


2J 


2 


I 




8^ 


6J 


Arithmetic i, Bookkeep- 
ing I, Industrial Hist. ^ 


Kansas .... 


15 


3 


2i 


3 


I 


2 


"i 


31 


None 


Michigan . . . 


15 


3 


3 


2 




I 


9 


6 


None 


Minnesota . . . 


16* 


No 'prescriptions 




16 


Any taught 


Missouri . . . 


15 


3 


2 


2 






7 


8 


None 


Nebraska . . . 


14 


2 


2i 


3 


I 




8^ 


Si 


Agriculture 1 


Ohio .... 


15 


2 


3 


6« 


2 


2 


15 





None 


Wisconsin . . . 


14 


2 


2 


2 






6 


8 


Commercial Law J, Com- 
mercial Geography ^, 
Manual Training or Op- 
tional'^ Subject I 



a. College of Science is separate and prescribes two units of science, but no foreign lan- 
guage or history. 

6. Graduates of a four-year course of a Minnesota high school or the equivalent. 

c. Four may be offered, and an additional two units out of other groups. 

d. Optional may mean another vocational unit, as in commerce. 



244 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



TABLE II 

Entrance Requirements for the College of Engineering 
AND Mechanic Arts 





11 


UNITS PRESCRIBED 


ELECTIVE 


UNIVERSITY OF 


1 


i 




1 


1 


1 




Vocational Subjects 


Illinois .... 


15 


3 


3 






I 


7 


8 


Manual Training i, 
Commercial Geography ^ 


Indiana (Purdue) 


15 


3 


3 


2 


I 


I 


10 


5 


Any taught, 
in High School 


Iowa .... 


15 


3 


3 


2 


I 




9 


6 


Arithmetic I, Bpokkeep- 
ing I, Industrial Hist. ^- 


Kansas .... 


15 


3 


3 


3 


I« 


I 


II 


4 


Manual Training i 


Michigan . . . 


15 


3 


3i 


2 




2 


loi 


4i 


Manual Training ^ 


Minnesota . . 


166 


4 


3 


2 




I 


10 


6 


Any taught 


Missouri . . . 


15 


3 


3 


2 




I 


9 


6 


Manual Training I, 
Agriculture i 


Nebraska . . . 


14 


2 


3 


2 




Ih 


8i 


51 


Agriculture i, 
Manual Training i 


Ohio .... 


15 


2 


3 


6« 


2 


2 


15 





None 


Wisconsin . . . 


14 


2 


2l^ 


2 




I 


7i 


6| 


Commercial Law i, Com- 
mercial Geography ^, 
Manual Training or Op- 
tional* Subject I 



a. Free-hand drawing instead of history. 
6. Four-year high school course. 

c. Four may be offered, and an additional two units out of other groups. 

d. All are required to pass an examination in algebra. 

e. Optional may mean another vocational unit, as in commerce. 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 245 

If we look further in the announcements of these same 
universities, we shall find that they offer elementary courses 
in modern languages, science, and history that are open to 
students of sufficient maturity without any previous study 
of these subjects. These facts all go to show that state 
institutions are already inclined to take the best average 
results of what the high schools can do even where they 
are organized without reference, primarily, to preparation 
for college work. 

V. The Problem of Preparing Teachers 

But there is another very important consideration enter- 
ing into this problem. Suppose it be granted that, aside 
from the English, mathematics, and foreign language, it 
does not matter so very much what other subjects are 
presented if they are equally well taught ; how are we to 
do it ? From mediaeval times and the days of the Renais- 
sance Latin and Greek and mathematics, if taught at all, 
have been comparatively well taught. The reason is ob- 
vious. A great part of the effort of the colleges and uni- 
versities has gone to the production of good training in 
these subjects. In other words it is a case of educational 
heredity. 

On the other hand, practically all who discuss and 
deplore the weaker standards that have come to the col- 
leges in these later days, as a result of the multiplying of 
new high school courses, acknowledge the weakness to 
have been, not in the subjects themselves, but in the 
teaching of them. 

And so it is to-day. There is a woeful lack, even yet, of 
good teachers of history, the sciences, modern languages, 
and English. What shall we say of manual training, draw- 
ing, business subjects, agriculture, and domestic science? 



246 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The colleges and universities to which we must look for 
the training of such teachers are scarcely equipped for 
such work at present; and even if they were, there are 
not enough seeking such training to meet the demand. 

Again the reason for the lack is not hard to find. The 
very industrial development which has called forth this 
interest in and demand for the more practical things in 
education is attracting more and more of our young people 
away from teaching and other literary professions into the 
great fields of activity which are being opened up to the 
technically well educated. We cannot force people to be- 
come teachers. It must be a voluntary movement ; and if 
we are to have a sufficient number of volunteers, we must 
find the means for stimulating young men and young 
women to a desire to teach. 

It is all very well for the large vocational high schools 
to talk about the ultra-conservatism of the colleges; but 
what are the colleges to do ? Their own students are 
clamoring for efficient guidance in a score or more of new 
and rapidly developing fields. Practically every newer line 
of college work is more or less crippled for the want of a 
sufficient number of capable instructors. The vast wealth 
that is being heaped up because of the application of sci- 
ence and a higher grade of skill to the development of 
natural resources mostly flows away from the schools and 
colleges. 

In view of these facts, may we not very fittingly advise 
patience .? Or shall we crowd these new matters forward 
at the expense of thoroughness and efficiency in their teach- 
ing? There are very few who would not agree to the 
proposition that even these vocational subjects may receive 
college credit if the courses are well organized and well 
taught. The chief problem is in the teaching; and until 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 247 

that problem is solved, no amount of concession by the 
colleges can make much of this newer work creditable. 

VI. Need of the Study of Values 

There is room here in the meantime for a careful over- 
hauling of educational values. In this work the high 
schools and universities should cooperate, as they are 
already doing in many instances. The organizations of 
these two interests in the Middle states and Maryland, in 
the North Central group, and in the South, to say nothing 
of numerous state conferences, furnish just the opportunity 
needed for such investigations. 

VII. The Determination of Fitness for Admission 
TO College: the New England Board 

Another phase of the relationship between colleges and 
high schools is that of the method of determining the basis 
on which the graduates of high schools are to be admitted 
to college. At present there is considerable diversity in 
practice. The New England Association of Colleges ac- 
cepts certificates from approved high schools. The board 
bases its approval chiefly upon the record made by stu- 
dents coming from those schools. This is good as far as 
it goes, although not, of itself, sufficiently broad to be 
just. 

VIII. The Entrance Examination Board 

Another well-known plan is that of the examinations set 
by the College Entrance Examination Board of the Middle 
states and Maryland. By this plan one examination serves 
for all institutions coming under the jurisdiction of this 
board. So far as entrance by examination is concerned, 
this represents a great step in advance of the old method 



248 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of individual examinations by each of the colleges and uni- 
versities belonging to the group included in this scheme. 

The arguments for and against entrance examinations 
have been too frequently repeated to call for an extended 
notice here. 

The chief arguments in favor of the examination test 
are: i. It makes possible the application of practically 
absolute uniformity of standards. 2. It calls for great care 
and exactness in preparation. 3. It opens the way to 
each and every individual who is qualified to pass it, no 
matter in what school or by what means he has prepared 
himself. 4. It puts the student on his mettle. The argu- 
ments against such a test are: i. It frequently leads to 
artificiality of preparation, and puts the stress on good 
memory work rather than on thoroughness of training. 
2. It leads to a real waste of time in preparation. 3. It 
places the chance of success in answering a few questions 
above the estimate of the teacher who has had many op- 
portunities of testing. In this it is apt to be unfair to the 
individual. 

IX. The System of Accrediting by Inspection 

A third method which has grown up in the North Cen- 
tral states and is rapidly spreading to the South and West 
is the system of inspecting and accrediting schools. There 
are two ways, especially, by which this inspection is man- 
aged : First, and most commonly, it is done by the faculty 
of the state university or by an official inspector from the 
university. Second, inspection of high schools is made a 
function of a state board through an inspector appointed 
by such board. 

Where the inspection is done through the university it 
makes a closer cooperation possible between the two insti- 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 249 

tutions, a cooperation which is helpful to both. Indeed, it 
may be asserted that there is no other method by which 
the complete articulation of the high school and the univer- 
sity can be so satisfactorily accomplished. Assuming, as 
we have throughout these pages, that education is a growth 
proceeding from below upward, how better can the univer- 
sity ever really feel the limitations and the possibilities of 
the secondary stage of this growth ? Again, assuming 
that one of the great functions of the college and the 
university is to carry forward that research which may 
ultimately give us the principles of a real science of educa- 
tion, how can this work be so well accomplished as by 
maintaining that closeness of contact and recognition of 
mutual interests which such a relationship makes not only 
possible but necessary } 

The chief grounds for the establishment of state inspec- 
tion independently of the state university are : i. The fear 
that the latter institution will dominate the high schools to 
their hurt by subverting them from their proper sphere. 
2. The general claim of conflict of interests among educa- 
tional institutions and the consequent disadvantage to these 
other interests of such an arrangement. 3. The need of a 
classification of high schools as a basis for the distribution 
of state aid. 

As to the first point it is probably true that where the 
inclination of the state university has been to adhere to the 
independent university type there has been some cause for 
such feeling. The present willingness and desire of the 
state universities to take their places as organic factors 
in the state systems to which they belong has been too 
frequently demonstrated in recent years to leave any just 
ground for complaint. 

If there is any reason for the second assumption, the 



250 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

best possible way to eliminate it is to get together and 
invoke those higher and larger interests of education, the 
proper conserving of which calls for a voluntary rather than 
enforced cooperation. 

The third point is best answered by calling attention to 
the vicissitudes of state politics as compared with the more 
constant and truly conservative character of a university. 
The use of such an argument, in favor of inspection from 
a political department rather than from an educational 
center, would seem to run counter to much that we have 
learned through experience in this country. 

This point may not be passed, however, without a word 
in regard to the most notable case of inspection by a state 
of which we have any experience in any commonwealth 
supporting a typical state university. With a non-political 
board like that of Minnesota, and with an inspector with 
such a personality as has there brought great honor to the 
office, the limitation to this plan just mentioned above could 
never arise. 

X. Purport of Argument Stated 

Let no one mistake the purport of the argument here 
made for inspection and accrediting through universities. 
The plea is in no sense intended to favor university control 
and domination of the situation. It is made entirely in the 
belief that, in the long run, the highest interests of educa- 
tion would thus be conserved, especially in those states 
having a state university system. It seems quite evident, 
for instance, that the situation in New England calls for 
quite a different adjustment. With no central state institu- 
tion to lead in the work any state would probably find it 
desirable to organize state inspection through a State High 
School Board, a State Board of Education, or the State 



RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL TO COLLEGES 251 

Department of Education. In these cases a situation exists 
which puts the problem on a different basis. 

Further, it should be said that any system of accredit- 
ing carried on by the state through its university should be 
conducted on a broad basis of cooperation and helpfulness 
to all the educational interests of the state. The university 
inspector should in no sense be looked upon as an educa- 
tional " drummer " for his institution. His attitude toward 
all other institutions having an interest in the preparatory 
relationship of high schools should be broad, cordial, and 
free from any suspicion of any inclination or desire to dis- 
credit such interest. The results of his findings through 
inspection should, as far as possible, be made available to 
the educational public. On the other hand, no system of 
state inspection, or of entrance examinations, can ever free 
the state university from that educational responsibility 
which will still demand its close affiliation with the public 
schools, and especially the public high schools. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. A comparative study of the entrance requirements of state and 
non-state colleges and universities. 

2. An investigation of the relative effectiveness of the teaching of the 
older and the more recent subjects of the high school program. 

3. A similar comparative study of educational values as a basis for 
the definition of units of credit. 

4. A study of the systems of inspection in Massachusetts, New York, 
Michigan, and Minnesota. 

References. — " Educational Reform," Eliot, especially the chapters on "The 
Gap between Common Schools and Colleges," and "A Wider Range of Electives 
in College Entrance Requirements " ; " Education of the American Citizen," Hadley, 
especially chapters on " The Fundamental Requirements of School Education," and 
" The Use and Control of Examinations " ; "A Historical and Critical Discussion 
of College Admission Requirements," Broome; "Vocational Studies for College 
Entrance," Part i of Sixth Yearbook, National Society for the Scientific Study 



252 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of Education ; " Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements of the 
N. E, A.," Proceedings, 1899; "The Social Mind and Education," G. E. Vincent; 
Papers on" The Secondary Schools and the Colleges," also " President's Address," 
in Proc. 20th Annual Convention Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools 
of the Middle States and Maryland ; " College Entrance Examinations," Bergen, 
Science, 23: 981-982; "An Empirical Study of College Entrance Examinations," 
Thorndike, Science, 23 : 839-845 ; " Is the Course [in Biology] for College Entrance 
Requirements Best for those who go no Farther? " Needham, Science, 19 : 650-656 ; 
*' Conditions of Admission to College, McLean, Science, 23 : 645-650 ; " College 
Entrance Examination Board," Seventh Annual Report of Secretary, Educational 
Review, 34:272-316; "Is the Present Method of Granting Certificate Rights to 
Preparatory Schools Satisfactory? " Davis, School Review, 15 : 145-152 ; " Standard- 
izing of New England High Schools," Young, School Review, 15 : 134-154 and 278- 
283 ; " Defects of College Entrance Requirements," Nation^ 85 : 37a. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE BUSINESS SIDE OF HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Strictly speaking the entire field of school administra- 
tion belongs to the realm of business. In making use of 
the phrase "business side" we have in mind a more re- 
stricted application. This would include the daily routine 
of the school, all records and reports of the school, all 
statements of supplies needed, all records of moneys pass- 
ing through the hands of pupils, teachers, or principal as a 
result of the activities of the school or as tuition, all cor- 
respondence in any way directly related to the equipment 
and progress of the school. 

I. Necessity for System 

As a rule both principal and teachers are kept pretty 
busy by the routine of school work. This makes it essen- 
tial that the daily routine as well as all business records 
and transactions be arranged in the most complete and 
systematic manner possible. One of the first of these 
problems to present itself is the satisfactory arrangement 
of the daily program of exercises.^ Much of the success of 
the work will depend upon the right adjustment of this 
schedule of the daily routine. Of course the problems 
presented by the smaller high schools are as nothing com- 
pared with those of the larger ones. It is when a school 

1 See Appendix H for copies of daily programs as in actual use in various types of Illinois 
high schools. 

253 



254 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

begins to approach the five hundred mark, and the num- 
ber of teachers becomes correspondingly large, that the 
real trouble begins. 

II. Order of Arrangement of Classes 

However, there are some elements to the problem shared 
by all alike. One of these is that of the best order. of 
arrangement of subjects. With reference to study periods 
the program should avoid that arrangement which would 
bring the recitation on a given subject immediately after 
its preparation. There is danger that pupils with quick 
memories will depend upon their ability to remember every- 
thing without much thought. The method of the teacher 
will regulate this to some extent. 

As to what subjects to put in a certain part of the day's 
exercises, there seems to be no general agreement. Prob- 
ably this is true, that the earlier morning and afternoon 
hours are best where mental acumen and vigor of thought 
are required. There is little doubt but that the morning 
hours are best for experimental work such as is required 
in the physical sciences. It is also safe to assume that 
fatigue will diminish as the exercises from hour to hour 
become more varied. Monotony of work either in study 
or recitation should therefore be avoided. 

III. Length of Periods 

The length of recitation periods should be at least forty 
minutes in the clear, i.e. there should be extra time allowed 
over and above the forty minutes for movement of classes. 
Subjects requiring laboratory work and manual arts work 
should, if possible, be provided with double periods. It 
may not be necessary to use these double periods daily, 
but the subjects should be so placed on the program as 



THE BUSINESS SIDE 255 

readily to admit of their use when needed. This will fre- 
quently raise a serious question in connection with the 
brief mid-session recesses which are generally given in 
smaller schools. It is sometimes found necessary, for 
instance, to make one extra period do service for two sci- 
ence subjects in providing for double periods. Thus three 
consecutive periods assigned to the two subjects make it 
possible to give double periods to each for half the time. 
In order to accomplish this, it will be seen that where a 
recess is given it would be necessary either to arrange for 
three periods before or after a recess period or else require 
the science classes to omit recess on laboratory days. A 
very common practice is to omit recesses altogether, and 
to shorten the session, especially in the afternoon. 

IV. Difficulties in Case of Electives 

As soon as a school is large enough to offer electives 
in the program of studies, another difficulty arises, — a dif- 
ficulty which is likely to be more serious in a moderately 
large school than in a very large group. This difficulty 
grows out of confficts ; and where classes are sufficiently 
large to require several sections of course the difficulty is 
diminished. On this account the principal of a high school 
enrolling from three hundred to five hundred will need to 
study out the daily program very carefully indeed, in order 
to adjust the work so as to cause the least possible loss to 
individual pupils. Irregularity of work on the part of a 
very few pupils will usually add new complications to 
such a problem. 

V. Question of the Single Session 

In the case of the larger high schools and some smaller 
ones, such as township schools in populous localities, the 



256 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

question of the single session will present itself. Where 
many of the students have a long distance to go, the alterna- 
tive arises of a single session closing at about one o'clock, 
or a double session with provision for warm luncheons to 
be served at the school. Both of these methods are in 
use in different localities, and both have their advocates 
among schoolmen who have studied the problem. On 
the whole, the two-session plan with lunch-room arrange- 
ments seems to be most in favor. This plan offers a much 
better opportunity to look after the interests of individual 
pupils and to keep up all sides of the work. The condi- 
tions for study at the school are probably better than in a 
large proportion of the homes represented, and many stu- 
dents are saved from an idleness that might be worse than 
wasteful, especially in the city. 

VI. Consultation Work and "Checking Up" 

Besides the regular schedule of study and recitation 
work, provision is also to be made for consultation work 
by pupils with teachers, by pupils with the principal, and 
by teachers and parents with the principal. Not all these 
things can always be confined to schedule time ; but pro- 
vision for them by regular schedule will greatly simplify 
matters and thus avoid much loss of time by some or all 
of those interested. In all these things, the trite reminder 
that the " school exists for the pupils " is applicable. 

Besides the things already mentioned both teachers and 
principal will need a time somewhere for the daily " check- 
ing up." This work should be done at the school. In 
fact it is quite desirable from every point of view that 
teachers and principal should learn to leave all school 
cares behind them when they have closed the regular 
routine of the day, unless, perhaps, an hour or two of 



THE BUSINESS SIDE 257 

reading or study in preparation for the further progress 
of the work of classes in the case of teachers ; and 
either some progressive movement in school administra- 
tion, or as preparation for helpfulness to some teacher, on 
the part of the principal. 

VII. Business Correspondence 

Most of the business records and transactions come 
under the direct care of the principal in his office. This 
is particularly true of the business correspondence of the 
school which has to do with such matters as text-books, 
teachers, laboratory supplies, library books, general school 
supplies, lectures and addresses, and all such similar inter- 
ests pertaining to the life and activities of the school as 
naturally fall to the principal for arrangement or execu- 
tion. 

Wherever important business transactions are involved, 
copies of this correspondence should be preserved. In 
case of smaller schools and slight correspondence these 
copies may be made in handwriting ; but if this phase of of- 
fice work becomes at all extensive, a letter book and press 
should be provided and the letters written in copying ink. 
In the larger high schools it often becomes expedient 
to utilize the typewriter, and usually some clerical assistance 
is provided. Such help is needed also in keeping records, 
preparing copies of questions, outlines, and numerous 
other papers which are issued from the principal's office. 
This position of clerk or stenographer calls for a person 
of about as much discretion as does the position of teacher 
itself. 

VIII. School Records 

By far the most important factor in the business details 
of the high school is that of the school records to be kept. 



258 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The general facts and statistics which may be embodied in 
such records play a very important part in any scientific 
study of school problems. If any one would discover how 
inadequate such records usually are for purposes of inves- 
tigation, let him undertake to collect data on any question 
relating to school administration. The trouble is that 
school authorities generally fail to appreciate the relation- 
ship which the history of an institution should bear to its 
further development. As a consequence little or no pro- 
vision is ever made for the convenient and systematic 
keeping of school records. School principals and teachers 
are also often neglectful along these lines. They com- 
plain about having to make out long reports. An investi- 
gation will usually show that they are quite unprepared to 
furnish the facts desired because of neglect in keeping 
records. 

We become accustomed to making assertions in regard 
to educational conditions based on the apparent general 
trend of things. What we need to do more and more is 
to collect accurate data and carefully compare and analyze 
until we have some sure scientific footing for our belief. 
We have already suggested the necessity of keeping a 
record of correspondence. For similar reasons a strict 
account of all moneys received and paid out by the princi- 
pal in the interests of the school should also be kept. 
This should include tuition money, receipts and expendi- 
tures for lecture courses, commencement exercises, con- 
tests, and all social or athletic events. Pupils should be 
required to render a strict account of all such school inter- 
ests as may be left largely to the management of student 
organizations. Under this class would come students* 
athletic and literary organizations, the business manage- 
ment of high school publications, and all kindred interests. 



THE BUSINESS SIDE 259 

These things are of vital interest in the life of the school, 
and it is proper that they become a part of the historical 
record of the school. It is still more important, perhaps, 
that pupils form the habit of rendering a strict and orderly 
account of all such transactions as thus directly interest 
the school public. 

Speaking of historical interests, there should be in every 
high school a clear record of all notable school events 
given in sufficient detail to indicate the purpose or occa- 
sion, the leading participants, the nature of the event, and 
the results. This should include copies of all set pro- 
grams pasted or written into the record. The time will 
come in the experience of any community when such 
records will be prized. It could hardly be otherwise in 
the case of an institution where so many interests center 
as in the public high school. The principal will, of course, 
be directly responsible for the proper keeping of these 
records ; but, at least where he has no clerical assistance 
in his office, he may well enlist the aid of some of his 
teachers or even of the more advanced pupils. 

There should also be kept a complete record of text- 
books used in the high school, giving name of book and 
publisher, date of edition, date of introduction, approxi- 
mately the number required for a class, and the date when 
use is discontinued. If the reason is also stated for each 
change of texts made, the record will be all the more 
enlightening. Such a record will be of value to succeed- 
ing principals, and will also, in time, furnish some valuable 
data concerning the development and endurance of text- 
books. 

Another record which, like records of school events and 
text-books, is often omitted from the records of a school is 
a complete register of the teachers of a high school. Such 



26o HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

a register might be made of great value for future refer- 
ence. It might include the name, age, preparation, and 
experience of the teacher or principal at the date of first 
employment. If a photograph could accompany this pre- 
liminary record, so much the better. Subsequent additions 
to the record might include such items as promotions in 
position and salary, further preparation through special 
study, notable efforts of a special nature, date and cause 
for closing service. In connection with this last item 
there might be a record of resolutions or other expression 
of the general estimate placed upon the service rendered 
if in any way worthy of special mention. Aside from any 
general historic interest which alone would justify such a 
record, the high order of the service rendered by the suc- 
cessful teacher and the peculiar dependence which one 
engaged in school work is compelled to put upon such a 
record as a basis for future promotion makes this sugges- 
tion one of more than ordinary importance. 

In looking up the records of high schools for the pur- 
pose of tracing the development of their courses of study, 
one is early confronted with the fact that most schools 
seem to have kept no complete record of the courses in 
use from time to time. It would seem as though our 
natural interest in preserving the history of such an insti- 
tution would prompt us to the keeping of a full record of 
such an important factor as the program of studies. It is 
in this more than in any other one factor that we may 
read the evolution through which our secondary schools 
have passed. 

It has always been the custom to keep some kind of 
record of pupils. This is a matter which is often badly 
neglected, however. There are so many to whom a definite 
record of high school experience becomes important in 



THE BUSINESS SIDE 261 

connection with future progress in a chosen occupation, or 
in the further pursuit of an education, that there is no good 
excuse for failure to keep and preserve it. The essential 
elements to this record are, first, such as would be included 
in filling out a registration or enrollment slip, — that is, 
name in full, date and place of birth, residence, name of 
parent or guardian, occupation of parent if living ; second, 
a record of attendance, including punctuality; third, a 
record of scholarship ; fourth, a record of character. There 
should be added to the above, if possible, a record of phys- 
ical condition on entering school, at various regular periods 
while in attendance, and at the completion of the course. 
There may be still further added such items as answers 
to questions as to future plans, choice of occupation, etc., 
although these can hardly be considered essential. 

IX. Methods of Keeping Pupils' Records 

Probably the best general method of keeping these 
records of the pupils will be found in the card system. 
By selecting a rather large card and using both sides, two 
cards will be found sufficient for all the above-named items 
except answers to questions and similar matters. These 
cards, filed alphabetically in suitable cabinets, make the 
most convenient and flexible system that has yet been 
devised. By using cards of two colors all may be kept in 
one tray. If metal trays are provided, they may readily be 
stored in safe or vault and thus secured against loss by 
fire. 

The card system will also be found convenient for keep- 
ing a record of teachers, and might readily be utilized for 
text-books. Even in matters of discipline the wide-awake 
principal will find the cabinet file a useful adjunct. For 
instance, the vertical file, with folder or envelope, may be 



262 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

used for keeping notes, excuses, written promises, etc., 
concerning those delinquent pupils who are most frequently 
before the principal. Such a record may be a very con- 
venient resource with which to confront the pupil, or even 
the parent, on occasion. 

X. School Reports 

The next thing in importance after the system of school 
records is the system of reports. These are, of course, 
closely related to the records either as furnishing data for 
them or as derived from them. It is therefore desirable in 
planning a set of blanks for reports to make them harmo- 
nize with the records to be kept, and vice versa. 

The different reports essential to the most successful 
management of a high school may be grouped under (i) 
Teachers' reports to the principal, including reports of the 
attendance, scholarship, and conduct of pupils; reports of 
pupils having some physical defect; reports of cases of 
contagion or accident ; reports on, or requisitions for, books 
and supplies needed. (2) Teachers' reports to pupils, 
including records of attendance and scholarship, and es- 
pecially any delinquencies. (3) Teachers' reports to par- 
ents, chiefly in regard to special matters pertaining to 
individual pupils. (4) Principals' report to parents, includ- 
ing a summary of teachers' reports on attendance, scholar- 
ship, conduct, and such physical defects or immoral 
tendencies as may be known to him. (5) Principals' 
reports to the superintendent or board on such matters as 
may be required by them under the laws governing the 
management of schools. (6) Principals' or superinten- 
dents' reports to the county, state, and national departments, 
or to colleges and universities with which accredited re- 
lations are sustained. 



THE BUSINESS SIDE 263 

It will readily appear that the completeness of these 
reports will largely depend upon the fullness and accuracy 
of the records kept; also that the ease with which they 
may be compiled will depend chiefly upon the proper cor- 
relation of records and reports. In the case of schools 
with poorly kept or incomplete records the making of a 
report often becomes a serious task if not an impossibility. 
This is particularly true if there is a change in teachers, 
principal, or superintendent, and the later incumbent is 
called on to make a report involving past records. Like all 
other matters depending upon attention to details the suc- 
cess of a report must depend upon the faithfulness and 
orderliness with which the minor items on which it is based 
have been set down. 

In the case of reports on scholarship, when it comes 
to the consideration of the real value of such reports, 
much will depend on the method used in keeping the 
record. It seems almost unnecessary, after what has been 
said "previously in the discussion of examinations, to discuss 
this matter further. Yet we may stop to consider just 
what information ought to be given in the report of teacher 
or principal to parents. If any estimate is to be placed 
upon the pupil's progress for a given period, it ought cer- 
tainly to be as just and fair an estimate as possible. Shall 
it be expressed as so many per cent, or in a word or sen- 
tence } Those who contend for per cents believe that this 
is the simplest and most definite way to express the 
teacher's estimate of a pupil's progress. If we examine 
closely into the working of this scheme, however, we shall 
find that it is often misleading. In the first place, as has 
been suggested before, most teachers are prone to fall into 
the habit of making it a mere quantitative comparison of 
members of the class. Further, if the teacher has made an 



264 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

estimate of a pupil in the first report which is later found 
to be a mistake, the fact of the previous estimate will often 
determine the grade. This is because the correct estimate, 
if widely at variance with the first report, will demand an 
unpleasant explanation, and so the teacher may hesitate or 
even fail to make the full correction. 

The thing which most parents desire to know is whether 
or not their children are doing in a satisfactory manner the 
work that is required to be done in the process of their 
education. The purpose of whatever report is sent should 
be to convey this information as definitely as may be. 
This can hardly be done by the ordinary method of esti- 
mating by per cents. A pupil whose comparative grade is 
only 70 per cent may have worked much more satisfactorily 
than one whose grade is 90 per cent. It seems evident that 
in such cases the parents fail to get the information which 
the report is intended to convey, and at the same time an 
injustice is done to both pupils concerned. 

The whole matter of scholarship records and reports is 
very much in need of careful and thoughtful revision in 
many of our public schools. 

References. — " Administration of Public Education in the United States." But- 
ton and Snedden, Chapter 30; N. E. A. Report for 1901, J. M. Greenwood, on 
High School Statistical Information, pp. 490-499. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE COMMUNITY LIFE IN ITS RELATIONSHIP TO HIGH 
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Very frequently of late we hear in educational discus- 
sions references to the community life as constituting an 
important element for consideration in planning high 
school programs. We are told again and again of the 
need of adjusting these programs to that general quality 
which each community is supposed to possess very much 
after the manner of the peculiar personal qualities of an 
individual man. This, too, is a question, therefore, which 
must have its place in a discussion of the more general 
problem of high school administration. 

I. Educational Ideals and Standards 

The first phase of the question which presents itself is 
the educational ideals and standards held by the people of 
a given community. To one who is at all familiar with the 
management of schools an ordinary democratic American 
community presents some very interesting features in this 
respect. In the first place it is true that the educational 
ideals of a community are usually determined by a rather 
small minority of the group. It frequently happens that 
while people may look to those of their number who have 
had the best educational advantages to tell them what is 
best for the neighborhood educationally, yet when it comes 
to selecting the board of trustees in whose hands is to be 

265 



266 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

intrusted the execution of these educational policies, the 
ordinary forces operative in a community usually deter- 
mine the selection, rather than any consideration of special 
fitness. As a natural result it often happens that the real 
ideals of the community fail entirely of realization ; while 
such sordid motives as a politician's desire to please, or an 
opportunity to use a position or a contract at the disposal 
of the board to reward a friend, often determine the fate 
of the school. 

In most neighborhoods two extreme views contend for 
control. One is this ideal outlook of the few competent 
ones above referred to. Opposed to it is the conception 
which the great mass of the people hold in regard to edu- 
cation. Even in communities where the masses are mostly 
native Americans the dominant idea of schools is very low. 
Most of the people in such cases had their schooling in the 
country where one teacher taught everything, and where 
only the elementary branches were taught. They are, on 
the whole, well-meaning people; but they are very apt 
to consider much that is taught in high schools as super- 
fluous. For this reason we find them always opposing 
anything more than what they would term the absolutely 
necessary outlay. Likewise when it comes to the employ- 
ment of teachers, they are bound by the same limitations 
in regard to the preparation necessary for high school 
instruction. 

In communities where the ideals of the few prevail it is 
possible to move too far ahead of the majority of the 
people. In such a case a reaction is very apt to come ; 
men are elected to the board of trustees who represent the 
mass ideals, and the good work is all undone. In most 
towns and smaller cities, and sometimes even in large 
cities, educational interests are rendered very unstable by 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 267 

reason of such attempts to put in force educational stand- 
ards too far above the masses. Only a strong centraHzed 
school system can do such a thing successfully. The 
schools of the people must keep the people with them if 
they are to progress in any permanent sense. Much loss 
in effort put forth as well as funds expended results from 
such nullification as comes by the adverse voting of a dis- 
satisfied people. True, the agitation which is sure to fol- 
low will have a strong educative influence upon the very 
people who caused the reaction ; but, on the whole, prog- 
ress appears to be delayed. A wiser course in the admin- 
istration of schools under such conditions is that one by 
which it is undertaken to gain ground by degrees, steadily, 
and to carry along with this gain the training of the public 
mind to appreciation of, or at least acquiescence in, the 
innovations thus gradually introduced. There is nothing 
so well calculated to give stability to an institution as to 
gain for those who direct its affairs the absolute confidence 
of the people. It is a common occurrence in the history 
of the race that the education of the young has had to wait 
upon the training of their fathers and mothers. 

II. Influence of Local Industries 

Another factor in determining the influence of commu- 
nity life upon schools is found in the industrial situation of 
any given locality. Each community is stamped more or 
less emphatically by qualities due to its prevailing indus- 
trial activities. Indeed, we may say that the educational 
ideals of a community are apt to be determined largely by 
the same factor. This influence may be expressed, first, 
in the form of population ; and, second, in the form of the 
more or less direct relationship which the prevailing in- 
dustry may bear to the instruction offered in the high 



268 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

school. The population may be too large for the wealth 
of the community. In such a case the schools are likely 
to be poorly equipped and badly crowded. Such condi- 
tions are almost sure to arise in mining or manufacturing 
districts where large numbers of common laborers are 
required who represent comparatively small additions to 
the wealth of their communities. It is in just such cases, 
also, that population often becomes an adverse factor in 
determining public policy in regard to schools. This is all 
the more true because often a large proportion of this 
population of laborers is foreign, and so not in sympathy 
with our institutional life. 

It would seem as though where such populations must 
be permitted to assemble the state might somehow find a 
way to extend aid in maintaining good schools in order to 
protect public interests without endangering the interest 
of the people in participation. There would certainly 
seem to be other things besides police regulations in which 
the state should be able to exercise discretionary power in 
the protection of our institutions against loss or damage. 

The influence which the industrial life of a community 
exerts upon the actual work of the school is not so marked, 
usually, as one might expect. This is probably due to the 
persistence of traditions in regard to the function and work 
of the school. At any rate the peculiar needs of these 
local activities are slow in making themselves felt by school 
authorities. 

III. Feeling that Schools should minister to the 
Fundamental Industrial Needs 

There is a general and growing belief among many 
teachers, as well as among captains of industry, that the 
school should minister more definitely to the needs of those 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 269 

who are likely to engage in the fundamental national in- 
dustries. Thus it is felt that agriculture should be taught 
in the schools of an agricultural people ; commerce in those 
of a commercial people ; and the manual arts in those of a 
manufacturing people. The thought is that the more gen- 
eral training of the high school as it now exists should be 
directed along lines more in accord with the needs of a 
given community and accompanied by some training to 
skill along a definite line of manual or other industrial 
activity such as is likely to be most needed in the particu- 
lar community to which the school ministers. At present 
the tendency is to introduce courses in business and manual 
training, agriculture and domestic arts ; but this movement 
is very slow, owing partly to lack of funds, partly to the 
difficulty in getting suitable teachers, and partly to local 
conservatism. 

Among some leaders in educational thought conserva- 
tism has taken the form of a fear lest by thus permitting 
industrial types to fix upon the schools corresponding 
types of education, we may gradually develop an industrial 
caste system similar to that of European countries. These 
same leaders contend that a good general education with a 
limited amount of training along some industrial line is 
the thing to be desired ; but that the industrial training 
should be solely for its educational value, without any 
thought of fitting for the particular vocation which that 
form of industrial training might suggest. 

IV. Influence of Social Customs and Standards 

Social customs and standards also reflect the commu- 
nity life; and their influence upon the life and work of 
the high school is often very marked, and from the point 
of view of the educationally ideal, very often hurtful. 



270 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Such influences may be summed up under the following 
heads: Home conditions and customs as cooperating with 
or hindering the student's pursuit of his school tasks ; 
ideals and standards as to various social functions for 
the young, and the hours they are to keep during school 
days ; the treatment of youthful love affairs ; the attitude 
of the wealthier classes toward the training of their 
boys and girls to habits of industry and of simplicity 
of dress; the reading habits of the community and their 
effect upon the selection of books for public libraries ; the 
estimate which a community puts upon the advantages of 
a higher' education than that furnished by the high 
school. 

Home conditions are apt to stand in a contradictory 
relationship to the student's opportunity and inclination to 
study. It very frequently happens that the most unfavor- 
able conditions exist in what would readily be classed as 
the best homes ; while just as frequently the most humble 
homes, where conditions seem least favorable, are the 
homes of those who are persistently studious. This is 
partly due, of course, to the inclination of the student him- 
self to apply all his spare moments to study ; but usually 
the home atmosphere has much to do with it. The very 
same differences are apt to cause ideals and standards as 
to the social life of youthful members of the family to be 
most antagonistic to the cultivation of studious habits in 
the homes of the well-to-do. In many of our high schools 
the dominant element is this same "social set"; and in 
such cases the influence is so strong as almost to nullify 
the efforts of the teachers to maintain a high standard of 
scholarship and interest in the legitimate purposes of the 
school. Even the school itself is sometimes turned into a 
means of furthering the mad whirl of social events. The 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 271 

teachers themselves are drawn into the whirl, and thus led 
to take a sufficiently complacent view of the situation to 
permit the students to " pass " their examinations. One 
of the most needed lessons for our modern prosperous 
families to learn is that the greatest possible handicap to 
the young is the idea that for them success in life has 
already been achieved by their fathers. It is the greater 
leisure of wealth which ought to bring with it the greater 
opportunity for achievement. If this is to be the case, the 
days of study and preparation for such achievement must 
not be thus squandered. What more unpatriotic thing can 
a people do ? 

This social atmosphere in which the school is placed is 
apt to aggravate, for a time, the inclination on the part of 
the adolescent to fall in love. It is probably at this point 
that the greatest harm is likely to come from coeducation 
in secondary schools. The minds of youth are constantly 
centered upon the pleasures of association with the oppo- 
site sex. Such a succession of experiences follows that 
the high school graduate is often more thoroughly schooled 
in affairs of the heart than the average college graduate 
of twenty-five years ago. This state of affairs, coming 
from existing social conditions, presents one of the grave 
problems in the administration of the modern public high 
school. 

It lies largely within the control of the wealthier classes 
to remedy this social defect. If their own love of luxury 
and display will admit of it, they may well consider what 
the consequences are to be. All honor to those parents 
who, even though possessing great wealth, still insist upon 
training their sons and daughters to habits of industry and 
of simple tastes. The inclination to indolence and display 
on the part of the suddenly wealthy does not stop with 



272 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

their own class. In the democratic mingling of the 
public high school it is but natural that many of the chil- 
dcen of those in moderate circumstances should be seized 
with an overmastering desire for the same life of indolence 
and display. Thus the pressure is brought upon those 
whose home life is necessarily humble, and many who are 
utterly unable to do so strain every resource in order to 
enable their children to secure some social recognition. 
School authority, where possible, should set its disapproval 
upon such a condition. If we are to maintain free schools 
for all, they must be within ready reach of those in the 
humble walks of life. 

V. The Reading Habits of the Community 

Another very definite influence is felt in many com- 
munities as a result of the reading habits of those who 
have any leisure for general reading. It is this class who 
are apt to determine what kind of books predominate on 
the public library shelves. If there are numerous literary 
organizations pursuing studies along the more substantial 
lines of literature, art, and history, the probability is that 
the class of fiction which finds admission to the public 
library shelves will be of a relatively high order. On the 
other hand, if purely social organizations for the entertain- 
ment and pastime of the members predominate, it is to be 
expected that all the sensational and more or less morally 
doubtful literature will be available to young and old alike. 
The effect upon the school is inevitable in either case. 
In the former instance the literary studies of the school 
will feel the stimulus from without, and a high standard of 
excellence will prevail. In the latter case the literary 
studies of the school will become stale and distasteful to 
the pupils ; slang, catchy phrases, and language of doubt- 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 273 

ful propriety will prevail, and a morbid taste for the sen- 
sational will possess the minds of the school. 

VI. Influence of the Wider Community Life 

Fortunate, indeed, is that community where high liter- 
ary standards prevail, where a sensual opulence does not 
stifle all high scholastic endeavor, and where a consider- 
able number of young men and women look forward to 
the still higher training of college or university. Where 
the prevailing educational sentiment is so low as to be 
willing to stop short even of a full high school training 
the task of the public school teacher is likely to be thank- 
less enough. It is a matter of common observation, on 
the contrary, that where a community is constantly send- 
ing out a goodly number to seek the advantages of higher 
institutions, the public school spirit is strong and helpful 
to the teachers of the school. Frequently it happens that 
the turning point in the social life of a small school com- 
munity is on the day when the first high school graduate 
goes away to college. Immediately the thought of the 
community centers upon something beyond itself; and 
even though the thought at first be uncharitable and lead 
to scoffing, yet, in the end, it will almost certainly result in 
some new aspiration or higher endeavor for that community. 

This brings us to a consideration of the influence of the 
wider community life, — of the state and country at large, 
and especially of the college or university. Such influences 
as have been mentioned above come from this wider field. 
But there are other influences which conditions existing in 
a state and nation exert. Educational values are, after all, 
subject to the influences of the market. High standards 
of service in state and national affairs will affect the esti- 
mate which many, perhaps most, boys will put upon a 



274 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

thorough education. The more men there are who secure 
important places through other means than merit, the fewer 
there will be of the younger generation who will seek such 
training as merit would demand. Thus the premium 
which the state puts upon high scholarship and upon the 
proper education of the young is bound to become a 
strong determining factor when the latter are choosing 
what schools they will attend. 

One of the means by which the state thus exerts its 
influence is by fostering and maintaining teachers' train- 
ing schools, colleges, and universities. These elements of 
the larger community exercise a very direct and definite 
influence over the high schools. It is true, of course, that 
this influence is not all good. For those communities where 
the social conditions are bad the worst things from the col- 
leges are likely to be fit st adopted. It is especially in connec- 
tion with social habits and athletic sports that these un- 
desirable influences get from the college or university to 
the high school. But there is a larger and better sense 
in which these higher institutions influence the schools 
below. They furnish a stimulus to effort, a forward look, 
which nothing else can supply. They put the administra- 
tive forces at their best. This is peculiarly true under the 
system of accrediting high schools by the state universi- 
ties of the Central West. Certain standards of equipment 
and teaching abiHty are insisted upon. Many things which 
principals and superintendents are powerless to accomplish 
alone they are often able to do through the support of the 
accrediting university. 

VII. Counter Influences of the School 

Little has thus far been said in regard to the counter 
influence of the high school upon the community life. It 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 275 

is through the return of high school influence to the homes 
that much of the interest of the people in a wider educa- 
tional outlook is engendered. There is little doubt but 
that much of the activity in the way of organized literary 
effort among those adults whose school opportunities have 
been limited, is due to this counter effect of the training of 
their sons and daughters. A well-ordered and skillfully 
administered high school is one of the most effective re- 
bukes to the social weakness to which we have referred in 
this discussion. In spite of the current of influences set- 
ting from without, such a high school can do much to uplift 
the morals, preserve the true democratic spirit, elevate the 
literary and art standards, to say nothing of purifying the 
political atmosphere, of the community in which it is located. 
It may become a beacon light for many a less fortunate 
community of the state. Its influence upon the university 
will be as great as that of the university upon itself, — first 
by the quality of students it sends to the university, and, 
second, by stoutly maintaining the rights and interests of 
the majority of its students who will never go to the uni- 
versity against the domination of that institution's require- 
ments in so far as they may be inimical to the rights and 
interests of such a majority. 

But there is a more direct and intimate way in which 
the community life and the high school may be related. 
We have found in the discussion of the Life of the School 
what parents* organizations may do to help in organizing 
the social life of the high school. These same organiza- 
tions may be made to serve in many ways toward the 
mutual helpfulness of the high school and the community. 
They may find ways and means of enlarging the social 
outlook of the teachers. This is done by the Oak Park 
organization previously referred to. 



276 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The ideal very properly held up to-day is that the high 
school should be the social center of the community to 
which it belongs. All these expensive plants in the form 
of buildings, laboratories, reference libraries, and gym- 
nasiums should be more fully at the service of all the 
people. Such a condition of things has already been well 
established in a number of the larger cities, as in Boston, 
New York, and to some extent, especially in the evening 
schools, in Chicago and St. Louis. 

The high schools have grown up so rapidly that little 
thought has been given thus far to the possibilities of thus 
increasing the usefulness of the school. Gradually, how- 
ever, public sentiment is shaping in this direction ; and we 
may soon see these educational plants of the people exer- 
cising a much wider influence for good. It is notable, for 
instance, that in a number of rural cities where a great 
many children from the farms attend the high schools 
some phases of the science of agriculture are being 
applied. In some smaller cities the chemical laboratory 
of the high school is made to do service in the interests of 
pure food and pure water. And why should not the 
laboratory for the instruction of youth be permitted to take 
on this added significance for the pupils themselves.? If, 
as often happens, a good teacher of chemistry in a high 
school is capable, as a practical chemist, of serving outside 
interests by his laboratory analyses, why may not the 
laboratory under his supervision become a great means 
for municipal betterment? 

Wherever such experiments have been tried they have 
transformed the more or less abstract laboratory science 
into a real significant interest in the lives of the people, 
thereby doubling the effectiveness of the science teaching. 
In a similar manner, so far as possible, other lines of 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 277 

school work and of school development should be made to 
touch more closely the community life wherever such con- 
tact is possible without strain. 

In each small high school community, especially, the 
public library and the school should cooperate in the in- 
terests of education. At Galesburg, Illinois, the Board 
of Education employs one teacher whose business it is to 
have charge of the juvenile department of the public 
library and to see to it that the selections for reading 
made by the children harmonize as far as possible with 
the teaching plans of the schools. There are great pos- 
sibilities in such a plan for the high school if communities 
would take hold and make use of the means at hand. 

Each high school should be made famihar with various 
plans on foot for civic improvement, and the pupils en- 
couraged to participate in such efforts at public better- 
ment. Recently the designation of one or more teachers 
as Field Secretaries was proposed by the New York 
Public Education Society. The function of such an officer 
was to have specific charge of the economic interests of 
high school students, in order, among other things, to 
enable poor boys and girls to find employment such as 
might enable them to remain longer in school. The mere 
suggestion of such a plan opens up a very interesting 
range of possibilities for making the connection between 
the high school and the needs of life much more real and 
vivid. 

This calls to mind such plans as that adopted by Prin- 
cipal Thompson of the Boston High School of Commerce. 
The plan in this case is to secure for the boys of the more 
advanced classes opportunities for service, in some pre- 
ferred line, during the long summer vacation. These 
arrangements with employers are made with the under- 



278 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

standing that they are to pay the boys nothing or what- 
ever they may count the service worth. At the close of 
the term of service each employer writes to the principal 
his estimate of the boy he has employed, with such sug- 
gestions as to weakness or strength as may serve as a 
help to the teachers in the further training of the boys. 
It is needless to add that most of the boys thus employed 
readily obtain good appointments at the close of their 
school courses. 

In order to accomplish very much toward such a general 
expansion of high school influence and community re- 
action upon the school, it would probably be necessary to 
shorten the hours of teaching service of those who, by 
reason of special fitness for and interest in such work, 
might be assigned such special duties. If we may judge 
by the results obtained through the varied and brief ex- 
periments already made, however, the end in view would 
fully justify such an expansion of function. 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1 . An investigation of the extent to which community life actually 
affects high schools : — 

(a) In respect to courses offered. 

(b) In respect to the social life of the school. 
{c) In respect to studious habits and ideals. 

{d) In respect to preparing for higher education. 

2. The study of some community with a view to determining the 
sources and nature of the prevalent educational ideals. 

3. An inquiry into the probable effects of the development of high 
schools which fit directly for local industries. 

4. A study of some community with a view to ascertaining what 
modifying influence the high school has had upon the community life. 

References. — "School Management," Button; "Economy in Education," 
Roark; " Individuality and the Moral Aim in American Education," Mark; " The 
Social Mind and Education," George E. Vincent ; " Democracy and Social 



THE COMMUNITY LIFE 279 

Ethics," Jane Addams ; "The Boy Problem," W. B. Forbush ; " Social Education," 
Scott ; " The High School as a Social Factor," N. E. A. Report, 1897, pp. 694-699 ; 
" Reading of High School Pupils," Dorey, School Review, 15 : 299 ; " The Relation 
of High Schools to Colleges," Committee Report, N. E. A. Report, 1887, pp. 282- 
291; "A Decade of Civic Development," Zueblin, especially chapter on the 
" Training of a Citizen " ; see also article in Charities and the Commons^ vj : 335-343. 



CHAPTER XVI 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

There is one other phase of school discipline which, 
because of the universally high estimate placed upon it 
as a function of the school, is deserving of special treat- 
ment. This is the training of the young in practical ethics. 
There is a profound feeling, throughout Christendom at 
least, that the methods that have thus far been employed 
have not proven altogether satisfactory. The existence of 
such a universal state of mind is all the more interesting 
because it is just as keenly felt in those countries in which 
the formal religious instruction of the church has prevailed 
as in this country where public education is distinctively 
secular. Still another interesting feature of the situation 
is the fact that in those countries where religious training 
under church direction has been customary the tendency 
is strongly towards secularization ; while in this country of 
secular education there seems to be a growing feeling in 
favor of some kind of religious basis for ethical training. 

I. The Need from the Standpoint of the State 

Next to man's general interest in the advancement of 
the race, and indeed essential to it, is the interest of the 
state in providing for the development and perpetuation 
of its own ideals and institutions. It is upon this principle 
that the state assumes the duty and prerogative of admin- 
istering education. To this end schools are maintained 

280 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING 281 

out of the public treasury for training the young in intelli- 
gence and in those habits of industry and moral conduct 
necessary to good citizenship. 

On the general proposition that it is the right and duty 
of the state to see to the education of its citizens there is 
practically universal agreement. To the further proposi- 
tion that an essential part of this training is ethical train- 
ing there is common consent. We may even go further 
and say that we are coming to realize, more and more, the 
intimate relationship which ethical training bears to effec- 
tive training in intelligence and industrially. This principle 
is well expressed in the following words by a prominent 
German writer on economic subjects : ^ " The progres- 
sive development of labor power is, under all circum- 
stances, necessarily dependent upon ethical strength, for 
personal improvement is always a wearisome task. Who- 
ever possesses no ethical energy succumbs either to the 
depressing influence of necessity or to the enervating 
influence of luxury." How better can we account for the 
two great sources of danger to the social body.? On the 
one hand are those, mostly ignorant and unskilled, who, 
lacking the moral courage necessary to advancement, yield 
to grinding necessity, stagger for a time under the load, 
then join the army of the viciously discontented or stifle 
their dull despair in dissipation. On the other hand are 
those to whom, for the same lack of moral stamina, easily 
gotten wealth becomes a curse, and whose vitiated and 
vitiating luxury of life adds a most deadly venom to our 
social ills. 

Thus we account for the two prevailing types of deprav- 
ity, the vicious ignoramus, and the villainously intelligent. 

1 From " Die Arbeitskraft der verschiedcnen Volker," by J. Deutsch (quoted from U. S, 
Com. Report, igoo). 



282 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Nor have we far to go in order to find examples of them 
and of their devastating work upon the cherished results of 
our efforts toward higher social attainment. While we 
have been trying to dispose of the ignoramus by educating 
out the illiterate, we seem sometimes to have forgotten to 
apply the right preventative to the increase of that class 
who, knowing enough to do good, yet will to do evil. 

II. The Two Methods Heretofore Used 

If, then, we are generally agreed that there is definite 
need of a higher ethical training in connection with our 
scheme of public education, we most naturally seek to 
know the best means at our disposal for the attainment 
of such an end. As we look about us we find at least four 
instrumentalities which, in the nature of things, are more 
or less active in the work of molding the moral tendencies 
and character of the young. These are the home, the 
church, the school, and that general aggregation of other 
forces which we may call the community life. We cannot 
here enter into the particular relationship and efficacy of 
each of these in producing the results desired. Our imme- 
diate concern is in seeking to ascertain the best course to 
be pursued by the state in remedying the acknowledged 
defect through those instrumentalities which may be said 
to be at the state's command. 

In the first place, we find that two general modes of 
procedure have characterized the past organization of 
modern schemes for public education. The first of these 
left the teaching of the schools with reference to ethics in 
the hands of the church. This plan was the traditional 
one; for modern public education was first promulgated 
by the church as a means to the teaching of religious 
doctrine and history. In central Europe this was partially 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING 283 

modified as a result of the Reformation. The complete 
change came in Germany with the organization of the 
empire. In France, as we have already seen, the public 
schools were organized under church domination and con- 
tinued thus until the present century. In England the 
schools are still subject to religious instruction by the 
churches. 

The second mode of organizing an educational system 
was that instituted in the United States by which educa- 
tion was completely secularized, as are now the state schools 
of France and Germany. Neither one of these methods 
seems to have proven successful. In the case of the first 
method the teaching by the church has always lapsed into 
utter formalism which has produced little if any real change 
in the moral attitude of the recipients. The general effect 
is perhaps fairly expressed by a recent English writer on 
school-boy religion who puts it this way: " I am seriously 
convinced that the average boy at school is as little influ- 
enced by the religion whose forms he is encouraged to ob- 
serve as if God lived on Sundays only, within the chapel 
only, in theory only.''^ If this is putting the case too 
strongly it is still placing the emphasis on the right point 
by way of explaining the failure of this method. 

Turning now to the second method, in France it has 
been thought necessary, in secularizing the schools, to sub- 
stitute some formal teaching in the principles of ethics. 
That is to say that the French people are not satisfied to 
intrust the instruction of the children in morals entirely 
to the incidental training of general school discipline. 
This latter thing is exactly what we have been doing to a 
very large degree in the United States, and the opinion is 
very general that the results are not satisfactory. 

* " Religion of the Schoolboy," Weisse, Contemp. Rev., 85 : 697. 



284 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

III. Statement of the Situation 

We have adhered strictly to the secular form of public 
education as consistent with a fundamental principle of 
our government which forbids any union of church and 
state. In doing this, however, we have never considered 
ourselves as being, on that account, an irreligious nation. 
As a matter of fact, we do distinctly recognize solemn re- 
ligious obligations in conducting our courts of justice, our 
national and state legislative functions, and in the induction 
to office of all our chief officials, both state and national. 
However, in our zeal to keep out sectarian instruction from 
our public schools we have sometimes gone to the extent 
almost of barring religion. We have contented ourselves 
with saying that this is a thing to be left entirely to the 
home and to the church, and that the public schools must 
be satisfied to train only in matters purely moral and in- 
tellectual. We have even borne down a little harder on 
the intellectual than on the moral side, perhaps. 

An examination of the facts will readily show that prob- 
ably a majority of children of secondary school age are 
receiving little if any moral instruction through the church. 
Any one familiar at all with home conditions in most of 
our cities and in some of our rural communities will know 
that in many of these homes the amount of moral training 
is a negligible quantity if, indeed, the training is not posi- 
tively immoral. While it is doubtless true that the per- 
centage of children attending our secondary schools from 
such homes is comparatively small, yet the total number 
of high school pupils whose moral training is thus other- 
wise entirely unprovided for is large enough to become 
cause for public concern. There is probably no stage 
in the course of public education where immoral char- 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING 285 

acters can do more lasting injury by contact than during 
adolescence. 

IV. Nature and Treatment of our Problems 

How are we to treat this problem in our secondary 
schools ? Much has already been suggested in preceding 
chapters. The entire discipline of the school, if right in 
spirit, exercises a powerful influence in molding moral 
habit and clarifying moral judgment. This, undoubtedly, 
is and must continue to be, the chief reliance of the high 
school for purposes of ethical training. With a wholesome 
school spirit directed by teachers of strong, positive moral 
character, what opportunities are offered in the teaching of 
the various subjects, in the physical training of the students, 
in the manifold phases of the social life of the school! 
This is what the French teachers call incidental teaching 
of ethics, and this did not satisfy them. 

Are we to intrust all to these incidental methods of 
teaching ? Some one has said that the chief trouble with 
incidental teaching lies in the fact that accidental is often 
mistaken for it. Perhaps this will account for the fact 
that there is such general dissatisfaction with the results. 
Possibly the results are all that we can reasonably expect 
with the constant strain that is put upon the assimilative 
powers of the schools. But so long as there is a chance 
for betterment we are bound to seek out and apply all 
available means. 

First there is possible a better use of the so-called inci- 
dental means. In our hurry to get results on the in- 
tellectual side are we not prone to forget to put due 
emphasis upon the ethical.? In our teaching of history 
and literature do we develop with sufficient definiteness 
the fine practical illustrations of moral courage and of 



286 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

strict adherence to sound principles which these subjects 
afford? In determining the motives of school discipline 
and the stimuli to effort on the part of our pupils are we 
as discriminating in our selection and in the methods of 
applying as we might be ? Do we, by our teaching and 
by example, inculcate love for the truth, respect and toler- 
ance for the sincere opinions of others, just dealing in all 
our relations with others ? It is possible that more atten- 
tion to the consideration of the common principles of 
ethics involved in school work, both in the training of 
teachers and in planning the operations of the school, 
would help out the situation. 

But what shall we say of formal instruction in ethics ? 
Are the French schoolmen sound in their conclusions ? 
It seems reasonable to conclude that a very brief but sound 
treatment, setting forth the basic principles of moral con- 
duct, would do something towards helping to a clearer 
conception and a more correct application of these prin- 
ciples by the boys and girls of our high schools. Here 
again much depends upon the teacher. We shall prob- 
ably agree pretty generally, also, that the fundamental 
principles of religious teaching would be involved in such a 
^^s presentation. To this, if fairly presented, without the intro- 
'' duction of teachings distasteful to any particular religious 
sect, there could be no reasonable ground for objection. 

As to the use of the Bible in the school there is much 
diversity of opinion; but no one seems to object to the 
teacher's exemplifying in his life the vital ethical principles 
of which It is the great expositor. There is much of the 
Bible which, if properly edited for the purpose, might be 
very profitably studied as literature. Such a study, freed 
from all discussion of sectarian doctrines and from reli- 
gious cant, could not but prove stimulating to the ethical 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING 287 

judgment and general religious interest of the student. 
Edward Howard Griggs, in his book on "Moral Educa- 
tion," has pointed out the necessity of knowing the litera- 
ture and history that is contained in the Bible in order to 
be able to understand and appreciate much that is found 
in general literature, sculpture, painting, and all other ex- 
pressions of life since the beginning of the Christian era. 
The history of the Jews can scarcely be appreciated with- 
out the Biblical record ; yet they played a very important 
part in the history of the ancient world. 

These and many other considerations furnish oppor- 
tunities for making high school pupils acquainted with 
the most essential features of the Bible without infringe- 
ment on the right of any one's religious conscience, and 
with the probable result of stimulating a deeper interest in 
the underlying religious thought. 

V. Conclusions 

The summing of the whole matter is this: We agree 
that there is need of more efficient moral training. We 
agree that in its function of administering education the 
state should provide for this defect if possible. Shall we 
quibble about the means while the situation continues to 
grow worse } Humboldt tells us that " whatever we wish 
to see introduced into the life of a nation must first be in- 
troduced into the schools." If formal ethical teaching will 
further the work ; if religion is, in any important sense, a 
basis for moral growth, and if moral training is essential to 
good citizenship, how can we afford to omit any of these 
from the sum of our teaching ? 

In the report of a committee appointed by the National 
Education Association to consider moral education occurs 
this statement: "The keynote of moral culture is love and 



288 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

duty." Paul says, " And now abideth Faith, Hope, Love, 
these three ; but the greatest of these is Love." The cen- 
tral force and principle of Christian religion and the key- 
note of moral education are one. Yes, G. Stanley Hall is 
right when he says that " if our love is deep, obedience is 
an instinct if not a religion." Have we not here the gist 
of the whole matter.? There are certain fundamental 
religious conceptions practically common to all mankind, 
especially of those types represented in any numbers in 
our national life. Let a non-sectarian commission carefully 
enunciate these principles and let them be taught in our 
schools. At the same time let the Bible stories and ac- 
counts which best exemplify and set forth these principles 
be edited and used as literary readings for all except such 
few individuals as may, on account of conscientious scru- 
ples, object. Further, let greater pains be taken for the 
inculcation of the principles of righteousness, justice, and 
charity in all human relationships. 

As ,to religious devotional exercises, in most communi- 
ties outside the larger cities there will be little if any ob- 
jection to them. Their influence on the spirit and life of 
the school where participated in generally by students and 
teachers alike have seemed to be decidedly good. This is 
particularly true of the singing of carefully selected re- 
ligious songs. Some of these songs are inseparably con- 
nected with notable movements of the race ; some are great 
national anthems which pour forth profound expressions 
of prayer or of praise. 

To any one who has for a long time been a daily witness 
to the effect of such exercises there seems little reason for 
doubt as to both the propriety and desirability of their use 
in all communities where such a practice does no serious 
violence to individual consciences. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS TRAINING 289 

References. — " Democracy and Social Ethics," Jane Addams ; " Moral Educa- 
tion," Griggs ; " Children's Attitude towards Theology," Earl Barnes ; " Moral 
and Religious Instruction in France," Bracq, Educational Review, 23 : 325-337 ; 
" Principles of Religious Education," Butler ; " The Effect of Moral Education in 
the Public Schools upon the Civic Life of the Community," Thompson, N. E. A. 
Report, 1906, pp. 42-49; "Social Ethics in the Schools," Bulkley, Forum, 26: 
615-620 ; " Relation of the School Studies to Moral Training," Adams, Third 
Yearbook of the National Herbart Society, 1897, pp. 73-100 ; " Ethical Training in 
the Public Schools," DeGarmo, in Annals of the American Academy of Pohtical 
and Social Science, 2 : 577-599 ; " The Relation of School Discipline to Moral 
Education," Wm. T. Harris, Third Yearbook, National Herbart Society, 1897, 
pp. 58-72. " The Incidental Method of Moral Instruction," Stickney, N. E. A. 
Report, 1896, pp. 414-421 ; " Means afforded by the Public Schools for Moral and 
Religious Training," Mott, N. E. A. Report, 1906, pp. 35-42; " Moral Training in 
the Public Schools," White, N. E. A. Report, 1886, pp. 128-148; "Education and 
Heredity," Guyau, Chapter V; "Report of the Committee on Moral Education," 
N. E. A. Report, 1892, pp. 759-765 ; '• Religion of the Schoolboy," Weisse, Contemp. 
Rev., 85 : 697; also Living Age, 2.^1. : 769. " Moral Education Needed," Education, 
26: 177-vjZ. (Editorial.) " Ethical Function of the School," Sheldon, Education, 
25 : 321-332 ; " Secular Education in the Interests of Religious Truth," Barrie, 
Nineteenth Century, 59 : 1045-1053 ; " The Making of Citizens," R. E. Hughes ; 
" Youth, its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene," G. Stanley Hall (especially the 
chapter on Moral and Religious Training in Schools). 



CHAPTER XVII 

HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION AND THE CONTINUATION 
SCHOOL 

I. Special Educational Agencies Needed 

There is a great substratum of life entirely outside 
of schools and universities where men and women, young 
and middle aged, are struggling upward through various 
special educational agencies. In many instances these 
agencies are obscure and quite unnoticed by those who 
have come to be recognized as the greater social factors 
educationally. Like the earthworm they are humble and 
despised, toiling patiently in hidden and out-of-the-way 
places; but Hke the same humble creature again they are 
causing much of this same substratum to rise nearer to the 
surface and thus greatly to enrich the productive soil of 
society. 

*' Social rescue work," "settlement work," "schools for 
the out-of -school," are some of the names applied to 
this work. It is not a recent movement, but a work 
of love and self-sacrifice which has gone on for many 
years. In these days it is beginning to attract the atten- 
tion of more of those who are vitally interested in the 
betterment of human life, and to call out the sympathy 
and aid of those who, seeing the great possibilities, seek 
to aid in the better organization and equipment of these 
agencies. 

290 



HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION 291 

II. Making the School a Center for Social 

Service 

As one result there is a profound movement to-day 
throughout France, Germany, and among all EngUsh- 
speaking nations which seeks to make the school a center 
of general social service. This movement manifests itself 
in various ways. It has led in some cases to medical 
and sanitary inspection for schools and the consequent 
organization of classes for the special educational treatment 
of defectives. More attention to home conditions has 
also resulted, with a consequent effort in many cities 
for better home building among those socially retarded 
groups usually called "the slums." 

Numerous factory schools, and schools established 
by great commercial houses, through the influence of 
philanthropic men of affairs, in which young operatives 
may find opportunity to train for more efficient service, 
and hence for advancement, are to be counted among 
the results. The night schools of the Y.M.C.A. are 
also contributing largely to the work of betterment by 
offering to numberless young men opportunity for literary, 
business, and industrial training of all kinds. 

Correspondence schools have sprung up, offering in- 
valuable service to many who thus find aid in directing 
the efforts of their spare time, much of which could not 
be available for class work even in a night school. 

III. Place of the High School in this Work 

What relationship does the American high school bear 
to this work? What part should it have in this great 
social movement of modern life.? Long before thought 
of these things came to the conscious social mind devoted 



292 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

men and women were preparing the way. Books from 
school libraries were going out into numerous homes, to 
be read not alone by the children who received them 
but by others in the home group whose school days 
were past. Various scientific and literary organizations 
were started with the schools as meeting places but 
participated in by many out-of-school members of the 
communities in which they were organized. House-to- 
house meetings of clubs had their beginnings often in 
the heart of the teacher, with helpful influences thus 
begun whose value and extent no one can measure. 

The university extension idea brought with it a similar 
movement for high schools, especially in the Eastern 
states. In this way special classes were organized for 
various unfavored groups, lecture courses of a more 
popular nature were offered, and the benefits of the 
trained teaching and fine equipment of high schools in 
many cities were thus extended to a larger circle of the 
community life. 

More directly connected with the high school itself are 
some movements which are of a kindred nature. The 
broadening of the program of studies through the elective 
system is an effort to reach the masses. Growing out of 
this has appeared the possibility for those who desire a 
still more extended preparation in the home school of tak- 
ing one or more years of work beyond the usual four-year 
high school program. It is not an uncommon thing now 
to find pupils returning after graduation to take up some 
of the subjects offered among electives. Some of the 
stronger high schools have been able to work out regular 
fifth and sixth year courses as an inducement to pupils to 
remain longer in the home school. The results in such 
cases seem to be very satisfactory, and we are told that 



HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION 293 

there is no inclination to drop back where once the experi- 
ment has been tried. 

IV. Influence of the High School on Elementary 

Schools 

One of the most decided influences upon the school 
itself of this general modern movement toward utilizing the 
socializing influence of the high school is to be found in 
the extension of its influence downward to the elementary- 
schools. By this means these schools are often provided 
with the same quality of teaching as are the secondary 
grades. The teachers also are better able to plan the 
continuous and logical development of their special sub- 
jects. The chief loss to the pupils is the constant personal 
care of the same teacher, not always a loss either. The 
loss to the teacher, equally doubtful, is the broader view of 
the materials of education which the teaching of a wide 
range of subjects is believed by some to afford. 

Along with this extension downward of the departmental 
plan of organization goes also the application of some of 
the methods of teaching and discipline of the secondary 
school. Such a result is especially desirable for the 
seventh and eighth grades. The pupils of these grades 
are entering upon the adolescent stage of their develop- 
ment and therefore call for treatment similar to that of the 
ninth to twelfth grades. It is quite common to hear that 
teachers of these two grades of the elementary school have 
trouble in getting along with them. There is little doubt but 
that this trouble is largely due to the fact that the methods 
of teaching and discipline employed are not well suited to 
the age of the pupils of these grades. 

This leads to another consideration in connection with 
this phase of high school extension, and that is the intro- 



294 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

duction of high school subjects lower down. There are 
not wanting a goodly number of schools where this is al- 
ready regularly practiced. Nature study, or elementary 
science work, and a much broader treatment of history 
work than that formerly characteristic of elementary 
schools are among the important results. Elementary 
algebra and geometry, foreign language work, and the 
reading of English and American classics, are also among 
the means for this enrichment, from above, of the elemen- 
tary program. 

The plea for a six-year program beginning with the 
seventh grade is the logical outcome. As has been sug- 
gested in another chapter, however, the mere ordering of 
the program is not so important if the work itself is being 
done, and by competent teachers. Given a school with a 
modern elementary program, and with the seventh and 
eighth grades working on the departmental plan, and 
there you have it. 

V. The Evening High School 

The one factor which is coming most decidedly to the 
foreground of present-day activities for high school exten- 
sion is the evening high school. This, with the night 
schools of the Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A., the correspond- 
ence schools, and the schools established by manufactur- 
ing and business firms, constitute the continuation schools 
of America, corresponding to the Fortbildung Schule of 
Germany. 

The first free evening high school established in this 
country was opened in Cincinnati, Ohio, in October, 1856.^ 
In 1903-1904, as shown by the United States Commis- 
sioner's Report, there were 32 cities in which were con- 

1 Jones, " The Continuation School in the United States," p. 92. 



HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION 295 

ducted 39 evening high schools employing 426 teachers and 
enrolling 40,568 pupils. The great majority of these pupils 
gathered into the evening high schools are native Americans 
or foreign-born people who are lacking in the rudiments of 
an education, but who are seeking this training as a means 
of increasing their earning power. Quite a respectable num- 
ber, however, are bright young men and women who have 
had to quit school to go to work at the end of their elemen- 
tary school days or after one or two years in high school. 
Naturally those of the latter class accomplish most They 
are frequently working to enter college, although many of 
them have no further design than to be able to improve 
their prospects for advancement in business or in the arts. 
For the most part the pupils of the night schools select 
those subjects most directly related to the work they are 
doing. In this respect everything thus far in the experi- 
ence of high school work seems to point to a strong demand 
for regular trade schools for the out-of-school classes. 

For instructors in these schools regular high school 
teachers who volunteer are usually employed, although it 
frequently becomes necessary to go outside of this group 
in order to get enough to do the work called for. 

Shortness of hours and irregular attendance greatly 
hamper the work of the night school. In Europe the civil 
authorities compel attendance, but in America it is neces- 
sary to substitute interest of the pupils for compulsion. As 
a result teachers in these schools must be selected as far as 
possible because of their special adaptability to the work. 

VI. Tendency to a More General Use of the Con- 
tinuation School 

The continuation school is just beginning to find recog- 
nition as one of the elements in public education destined 



296 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

to render an ever increasing amount of service. It fur- 
nishes a way for those who, as bread winners, would still 
gladly profit by the education of the schools if possible. 
There is every reason to hope and believe that in time they 
will become a regular and permanent feature in our public 
system of education. Such schools may become useful to 
rural as well as urban communities. With the progress 
of the consolidation of rural schools and the consequent 
organization of high school groups in these central schools, 
the evening school may be the means of placing their ad- 
vantages at the disposal of young men and women who are 
compelled to give the day to farm and home service. In 
the early days of the West it was not uncommon for the 
youth of the country to take advantage of night schools 
in writing, spelling, and singing during the long winter 
evenings. Why may they not, in these later times, utilize 
these spare hours for training in the elementary sciences of 
agriculture and of the household .? 

At present the problem of financing these enterprises 
is the great stumbling block. But as gradually the idea 
of the larger high school district, corresponding to the 
larger ministration of the high school, becomes effective, 
this difficulty will disappear, both for city and country. It 
is fair to assume that every wide-awake superintendent of 
schools, and high school principals, as well as all other 
school authorities, will be keeping in touch with the move- 
ment in this particular phase of secondary work, and 
planning to meet the problem it presents as they come to 
realize it for their own communities. 



HIGH SCHOOL EXTENSION 297 

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 

1. A study of the secondary work done by Y. M. C. A. schools. 

2. An investigation into the efficiency of correspondence schools as 
related to secondary education. 

3. A study of the secondary night school work of any great Ameri- 
can city. 

4. The high school as an educational center for the out-of-school. 

References. — " High School Extension," D. S. Sanford, in Atlantic Monthly, 
81:780; "Extension of High School Influence," Stratton D. Brooks and Charles 
H. Morss, Educational Review, 29 : 433 and 441 ; " Schools for the Out-of-School," 
H. V. Ross, Review of Reviews, 34 : 315-321 ; " Public School as a Center of Social 
Service," Education, 25 : 378 ; " High School Extension," J. Stanley Brown, School 
Review, 13 : 15-18 ; " The East End Student," Living Age, 248 : 499-502 ; " Culture 
and Education," Rein, Forum, 22:693-702; "The Continuation School in the 
United States," Arthur J. Jones, Bulletin No. i, 1907, U. S. Bureau of Education ; 
see also bibliography in this bulletin, pp. 145-149. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE OUTLOOK 

In the preceding pages we have passed in review, very 
briefly to be sure, most of the elements which enter into 
the problem of secondary school administration. It seems 
fitting now that we make a brief resumd of the present 
situation, running over the chief educational motives that 
seem to be at present operative, and summing up the ideals 
and tendencies which most concern us here in America. 

I. The Educational Situation in General 

The whole civilized world is in a state of educational 
ferment. The rapid development, witnessed by the last 
three decades, of international trade interests ; the perfec- 
tion attained in means of interchange of thought; the 
influence of the great world-universities of Germany, 
France, England, and America in the unifying of man's 
great fundamental problems of life and of social order; 
the great international expositions; the reaction, each 
upon the other, of the Old World and the New because 
of the vast stream of migration from the Old to the New 
with all that this means in the way of intercommunication, 
as well as because of the constant stream of visitors to the 
Old World from the New, — all these, say nothing of nu- 
merous other minor influences, are sufficient to explain this 
ferment, this centering of the whole world's interest in the 
school. Nor is it remarkable, under such circumstances, 

298 



THE OUTLOOK 299 

that all the great world powers are thinking of about the 
same things in a general way, and each in its own way 
and with its own limitations is trying to make the forward 
move. 

11. The Situation in Germany 

In Germany the educational reform movement is seen 
chiefly in the conflict between the ancient classics which 
have so long dominated the secondary program and the 
natural sciences and modern language, including English. 
By act of Emperor William II. in 1900 applying to Prussia, 
the three classes of schools, Gymnasiefiy Realgymnasien^ and 
RealsckuleUy were placed on an equal footing with reference 
to university preparation. Important changes were also 
made in the curricula of these schools, looking toward giv- 
ing a much larger place to scientific and technical inter- 
ests. Another element of the present struggle for reform 
in Germany has to do with the education of girls. In a 
few cities courses in schools of the same grade as the Gym- 
nasium and Realgymnasium have recently been opened 
to girls ; but the progress made is very slow and thus far 
relates chiefly to providing a sufficient number of women 
qualified as teachers. 

For some time the excessive length of study hours in 
proportion to time given to recreation has been recognized 
by many German teachers, and efforts have been made to 
remedy this defect. Many new games, including football, 
have been introduced, but with moderate success. The 
pressure brought to bear in order to meet the examinations 
is almost prohibitive of such a movement. 

As a result of overpressure in the schools the students 
turned out, while remarkably strong in their knowledge 
of humanistic subjects, yet lack greatly in the power of 



300 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

initiative, in individuality and resourcefulness, such as 
characterize students from English and American secon- 
dary schools. 

In a more material way there is said to be great need 
of hygienic reform in the secondary schools. Reference 
has already been made to the long hours without recrea- 
tion. If we add to this a rather prevalent unsanitary 
condition with reference to buildings and grounds, we shall 
have a fair view of the situation in this respect. This is 
not to be understood as contradictory to a similar reference 
to German schools in Chapter IV., p. 58. The statement 
there refers to inspection, with special reference to phys- 
ical examinations of pupils. Here we have in mind the 
unsatisfactory conditions due to poorly constructed and 
overcrowded buildings. There is active effort along this 
line for betterment. 

III. In France 

Recent reforms in the secondary education of France 
have sought to change the central aim of education from 
the enlargement of the mental powers solely so as to in- 
clude the direction of conduct and the development of 
character. This change is well expressed in a recent 
article by Compayre, who says:^ "More and more our 
secondary teaching is turning toward realities and break- 
ing with really formal studies. Hitherto, too much heed 
was paid to making accomplished wits ; more thought was 
given to eloquence of style than to positive knowledge. 
People have come to understand that modern society de- 
mands other qualities, that the utilitarian point of view 
must not be slighted even in secondary schools." 

We see here a very close parallel to the movement in 

^ Educational Review, 27 : xg-35, a translation by Holbrook. 



THE OUTLOOK 301 

Germany. The recent struggle between state and church 
seems to be very largely a part of the more general break- 
ing away from the old ultra Latin school type of educa- 
tion. Other points mentioned by Compayre as indicating 
recent tendencies in France are : The introduction of 
manual training and athletics into the program ; a lessen- 
ing of the strictures of discipline, giving a larger freedom 
as an aid to the development of strength and individuality 
in character ; the introduction of some formal instruction 
in elementary ethics. It is believed by French teachers 
that this latter is needed in order to give shape and defi- 
niteness to the incidental instruction in morals in con- 
nection with other subjects. The introduction of such 
formal teaching in morals is doubtless to be considered 
as, in a sense, a concession. It is made all the more 
expedient on account of the recent complete separation 
of the public schools from the religious instruction of the 
church. 

We should not neglect to mention the fact that France 
is rapidly developing a fine system of trade schools where 
both principles and practice are taught. Moreover, in her 
system of secondary schools for girls France has the best 
yet to be found anywhere in Europe. These schools are 
on an equality, as to the curricula, with the boys' lych, 
and open the way directly to university courses for women, 
especially at Paris, Grenoble, and Lyons. 

IV. In England 

In England the movement as it concerns secondary edu- 
cation is not so clearly defined as on the continent. This 
is due largely to the fact that at the very first effort at re- 
form the Englishman is confronted with such a tangle of 
affairs in the general educational organization that this is 



302 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

necessarily made the first point of attack. There is no 
doubt, however, that he is awake to the need of reform. 
The educational bills of 1902 and 1906 together with the 
appointment and work of the Mosely Commission furnish 
evidence of this awakening. So far as the great secondary 
schools are concerned it must be affirmed that they have 
many points of superiority. What the Englishman wants 
is a secondary school for the masses that may prove as 
effective as those of any country. While it is a little early 
as yet to judge fairly as to what the effect of the present 
reform movement is to be upon secondary education in 
England, still it seems evident, from the nature of the in- 
vestigations now under way, that the chief objective point 
is the same as in the case of continental Europe. 

V. Tendencies in the Growth of our High Schools 

When we consider the fact that the public high school, 
as such, in the United States is less than a century old, the 
growth to which this type of secondary education has at- 
tained is certainly remarkable. We have found that there 
were in 1880 about 800 ^ of these institutions in the entire 
country. In 1890 the number reported was 2526. Indi- 
cating the growth by five-year periods down to the middle 
of the present decade we find the following: 1885, 4712; 
1900, 6005 ; 1905, 7576. This makes a growth in 25 
years of about nine and one half times the number in 
1880. 

During the seven years from 1890 to 1896 the increase 
in the number of public secondary pupils was 8;^ per 
cent. Taking the growth in the number of high school 
pupils by sexes through the five-year periods from 1890- 
1891 the figures are as follows : — 

» See Chapter XIII., p. 216. 



THE OUTLOOK 



303 



I 890-1 89 I 
I 895-1 896 
I 900-1 90 I 
I 905- I 906 



Boys 



83,578 
157,942 
224,584 
305,308 



Girls 



123,840 
222,551 
317,146 
417,384 



Total 



207,418 
380,493 
541,730 
722,692 



This shows a total growth of 3.48 times in the fifteen 
years, with the boys increasing 3.65 times and the girls 
3.37 times during the same period. 

If we take the number preparing for college in the pub- 
lic high schools for the same period of fifteen years we get 
the following : — 



1890-1891 
1895-1896 
1900-1 90 I 
1995-1906 



In Classical 
Courses 



12,788 
29,222 
33,164 
36,151 



In Scientific 
Courses 



12,270 

23,375 
27,263 
29,842 



Total 



25,058 

52,597 
60,427 

65,993 



Out OF AN En- 
rollment OF 



207,418 
380,493 
541,730 
722,692 



Here we see a growth in classical courses of 2.83 times 
and in scientific courses of 2.43, making the total increase 
in the number preparing for college 2.63 times. It would 
seem from these tables that the increase in the number 
preparing for college has not kept pace with the growth 
of high school enrollment. At the same time, the growth 
in the number pursuing classical courses is slightly greater 
than the number pursuing scientific courses. An inter- 
esting phase of this high school development is the fact 
that; in 1907 there were forty manual and industrial train- 
ing public high schools in the country with an enrollment 



;o4 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



of 13,800, as against fifteen schools and an enrollment of 
4892 in 1905. 

An equally interesting comparison is found in regard to 
the relative growth of public and private secondary schools. 
We are told that in 1887 the number of secondary pupils 
in private academies and preparatory schools still exceeded 
those in public high schools. For the five-year periods 
beginning with 1890 we find the following comparative 
enrollment : — 



Public Schools 



Private Schools 



1890 
1895 
1900 
1905 



211,596 
350^099 
530425 
697,702 



98,400 
118,347 
188,816 
107,207 



Thus the public high schools, which, in 1887, enrolled 
fewer students than the private secondary schools, eighteen 
years later enrolled 6.5 times as many as the private 
schools. 

The figures for the above statistics are taken from the 
reports of the United States Commissioner of Education. 
It is to be presumed that, owing to incomplete returns, 
these figures do not always tell the whole or the exact 
truth. Enough of the real state of things is revealed, 
however, to indicate both the magnitude of the growth 
of our public high schools and some of the important tend- 
encies of this growth. It is certainly not to be expected 
that with such vast increase in so brief a period of time 
the typical secondary school of America should present 
a very settled condition. Yet a careful comparison of 
schools in different sections of the country shows a sur- 



THE OUTLOOK 305 

prising degree of unity of plan In the most important 
features. This state of things may be accounted for 
chiefly through two influences which are far-reaching and 
powerful : The admission requirements of the colleges, 
and the unifying which has come through the discussions 
and committee reports of the National Education Associa- 
tion and the numerous other educational bodies, both 
sectional and state. 

VI. Present Outlook with Us 

The present outlook with us presents a situation which, 
in its main features, is not unlike that of Europe. Here 
we are seeking earnestly for a sound philosophical basis 
for an all-sided education of such a nature as to correspond 
to our social and economic needs. The prevailing thought 
is that, while we should seek to retain all that is really 
essential in the so-called cultural side of education, we 
must make a place in our secondary programs for the 
motor activities and for vocational training. We are pro- 
foundly conscious of a weakness in the coordination 
of our elementary, secondary, and higher schools. This 
is a matter for special consideration in all our seeking after 
educational soundness. 

In the training of secondary teachers we are far inferior 
to continental Europe and scarcely on a par even with 
England. This whole subject of the training of teachers 
is in a state of experimentation and ferment the outcome 
of which is bound to be good. 

In a material way we are in some respects better off 
than the rest of the world. But even here appearances 
are apt to be deceiving. We are almost entirely lacking, 
as yet, any provision for sanitary inspection of school 
properties and medical examination of pupils. Our high 



306 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

schools are too frequently overcrowded, both as relates to 
floor space and as to the ratio of the number of teachers 
to the enrollment of pupils. In all movements looking 
to the betterment of our material conditions we are ham- 
pered by lack of funds sufficient to keep pace with the 
rapid growth in population and the forward movement 
in our educational interests generally. 

VII. Motives behind these Educational 
Movements 

From this brief review of the general educational situa- 
tion we may now turn to a consideration of motives which 
are behind these great educational movements. These 
motives are both world-wide and general, and local or 
national in character. 

Among motives which may be called world-wide, by far 
the most important arises from economic and industrial 
conditions. The vital relationship existing between eco- 
nomic and educational advancement is coming to be well 
understood. The frequent reference to this matter by the 
leaders of thought in all parts of the world is attracting 
the attention, more and more, of those actively engaged 
in industrial and economic pursuits. Perhaps no one has 
stated the case more clearly than has Professor Tews, 
of Berlin, in an article on " Popular Education and Eco- 
nomic Development," a translation of which has been 
published in this country.^ More concrete still is the 
evidence of a growing recognition of economic and educa- 
tional interdependence seen in the German Emperor's 
demand for a more vitally realistic education, or in the 
French movement toward a liberalized program, or the 

1 See U. S. Commissioner of Education Report, Vol. I., 1900, pp. 723-752. 



THE OUTLOOK 307 

English awakening to national needs educationally, or in 
our own strong movement in the direction of industrial 
training as a part of public school education. 

A second motive of world-wide nature, and which may 
be called a counterpart of the economic motive, we may 
call the philosophical motive. Everywhere we are seeking 
to find in psychology a ground for those readjustments 
which the changes coming about through the action of the 
economic motive seem to demand. Thus these two motives, 
cooperatively, are behind the great general educational 
reform movement which characterizes the present and 
which is most vitally concerned with secondary edu- 
cation. 

The operation of these motives is modified in each 
country by local national interests or social conditions. 
The pecuHar needs, from an economic point of view, vary 
with each national situation. The maintenance of national 
power and prestige, the form of government organization, 
the condition of the masses as compared with the ruling 
class, all are operative in determining the nature and direc- 
tion of reform. Ecclesiasticism, the relation of church 
and state, the existence of trade-guilds and other social 
features, must also be accounted for in estimating 
results. 

All nations seem now to be aware that education is one 
of the most vital instrumentalities for securing their own 
perpetuity. Mankind has awakened to the fact that the 
understanding of elemental things in nature, the ability to 
develop and use the natural wealth of the earth, the intelli- 
gent direction of industry in new fields of human endeavor, 
the uses of history in rightly governing a state, the appre- 
ciation of the highest in nature and in the works of man, 
the growth of the spirit of patriotism and international 



3o8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

sympathy, are all possible through education, and essential 
to the highest economic and social well-being. 

VIII. American Ideals 

America confronts her problems of public education 
practically free from the encumbrance of Old World 
traditions. The development of our school system has 
come spontaneously from the people. France and Ger- 
many aim at perfection of organization as well as of 
product. We aim at enthusiasm, initiative, cooperation. 
The Old World deals with practically iixed conditions as 
to society and the character of the population. Our 
problem is largely one of the assimilation of a great and 
diversified stream of newcomers. With us the people 
are the state; ergo^ a state system of education with us 
must be a system springing from and maintained by the 
people. 

As we assimilate populations, so we may assimilate to 
our needs and to the genius of our social and political 
order all that is best in other systems of education. We 
need to study to the end that we may the better coordinate 
our system of schools; that we may properly adjust the 
high school program ; that we may provide the best 
teachers; and that we may look well to the civic and 
ethical training of our youth. But in doing all this we 
may not forget the true nature of the national ideals we 
thus seek to perpetuate. Do we accept the full signifi- 
cance of the dictum of a government that is " of the people, 
for the people, by the people " .'* Or are we already ap- 
proaching the time when we must say " of the people, for 
the people, by (some of) the people " ? If we are to insist 
on the former we must learn to come properly to our climax 
with the stress on "by the people" ; and if by the people, 



THE OUTLOOK 309 

how can we escape the conclusion with regard to the 
line of further development of our' schools ? 

It is easy for us as teachers to become impatient with 
the slow movings of the masses, and to undertake to project 
our school system upward by taking from the people more 
and more of that participation in control through which 
alone they are ever to come to realize the real meaning of 
this thing called education which the vicissitudes of human 
evolution have placed in. their hands, 
^he schoolhouse is coming more and more to be the 
center of social life and growth in the community. This 
it will not cease to do so long as the people feel that the 
school is their own institution, subject to their will ; so long 
as it is really the educational center of the community life. 
If, then, we are still to say " by (all) the people," we need 
to be careful to do nothing which shall, directly or indi- 
rectly, diminish their sense of participation in the one 
thing which, above all else, is the sustaining influence of a 
genuine democracy. 

This principle will apply whether we consider it in rela- 
tion to the control of the school, or in relation to what the 
school is to teach. No longer can there be any aristocracy 
of learning in the sense that a broad education is only for 
a few of the social groups. The broader culture of the 
schools in the democracy of the future will include both 
artist and artisan, both literary man and merchant, both 
statesman and industrial organizer. The common man is 
everywhere claiming his rights in such education as the 
high schools can offer; very soon, yes, even now, he is 
beginning to ask for the higher training as well ; and who 
shall deny this to common men who deliberately build 
their own schools? 



310 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

References.— "The Making of Citizens," R. E. Hughes; "The Educational 
System of Germany," Schirbrand, North American Review, 183 : 376-383 ; " Edu- 
cational Troubles of Germany," H. T. Frick, Nation, 83:433; "Educational 
Movements in Germany," U. S. Commissioner's Report, 1901, Vol. i, pp. 3-8 ; 
" Lycees of France," Hardy, School Review, 7: 549-559, and 8 : 18-25 *» " Secondary 
Education in France," U. S. Commissioner's Report, 1905, Vol. 1, pp. 76-80; U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. ii, 1906, "The Educational Bill of 1906 for 
England and Wales." 



APPENDIXES 



LIST OF APPENDIXES 

PAGE 

Appendix A 313 

Time-tables of German Schools. 

Time-tables of French Lycees. 
Appendix B 316 

Program of Phillips Academy about a century after its establishment. 

Program of Phillips Exeter when first established in 1 81 8. 

Program of Boston English High School, 1878. 

Present Program for the Boston High Schools. 
Appendix C 324 

Academic Syllabus for New York Schools, 1905. 

Minimum requirements for an approved course in New York High 
Schools. 
Appendix D 327 

Program of St. Louis High School, 1863. 

Program of St. Louis High School, 1874-5. 

Program of St. Louis High School, 1884-5. 

Courses of Study in the St. Louis High Schools, 1906. 
Appendix E 332 

Program of studies for Chicago High Schools. 

Appendix F , 340 

The Barnes Law of Kansas. 
Appendix G '. 342 

Definitions of High Schools, Minnesota, Ohio. 

State aid to High Schools, Laws of Minnesota, New York, Cali- 
fornia, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, North Dakota. 
Appendix H . . 349 

Daily Program of Streator Township High School. 

Daily Program of Deerfield Township High School, Highland Park. 

Daily Program of Hinsdale High School. 

Daily Program of Galva High School. 

Daily Program of Camp Point High School. 

Daily Program of Paw Paw High School. 

Daily Program of John Swaney Consolidated School. 
Appendix I 356 

Table showing enactments by States governing High Schools. 

312 



APPENDIX A 



TIME-TABLES OF GERMAN SCHOOLS * 

I. Time-table of the Gymnasia 

The brackets indicate the admission of a temporary shifting of the number of 
hours within the several groups of subjects. 



VI 



IV 



LIII 



UIII 



LII 



UII 



LI UI Total 



Religion 

German, and Historical 
Tales 

Latin 

Greek 

French 

History 

Geography .... 
Arithmetic and Mathe- 
matics 

Natural Science . . . 

Writing 

Drawing 



'} 



'.] 



Total 



25 



29 



30 



2 
2 
8 

6 

2 
2 

I 

3 
2 

2 

30 



30 



30 



19 
26 

68 
36 
20 

17 
9 

34 
18 

4 

8 



30 30 259 



II. Time-table of the Realgymnasia 



VI 



IV LIII UIII LII UII LI UI Total 



Religion 

German, and Historical 
Tales 



;i 



Latin ...... 

French 

English 

History 

Geography . . . . 
Arithmetic and Mathe- 
matics 

Natural Science . . . 

Writing 

Drawing 



19 
28 

49 
29 
18 

17 
II 

42 
29 

4 
16 



Total 



25 25 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 262 



Copied from " General View of Public Education in the German Empire," W. Lexis. 

313 



314 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



III. Time-table of the Higher Realschulen 



Religion , . . . . 

German, and Historical 

Tales 

French 

English 

History . . . . . 

Geography . . . , 
Arithmetic and Mathe- 
matics 

Natural Science , . . 

Writing 

Free-hand Drawing . 

Total 



VI 



:i 



:i 



IV 



LIII 



mil 



LII 



iUII 



LI 



UI Total 



19 
34 

47 

fi 

14 

47 

36 

6 

16 



25 



25 



29 



30 



30 



30 



31 



31 



31 



262 



IV. Time-table of the Realschulen 



VI 



IV III 



II 



Total 



Religion 

German, and Historical Tales 

French ........ 

English. ....... 

History 

Geography ...... 

Arithmetic and Mathematics 
Natural Science . . . , , 

Writing 

Free-hand Drawing . . . 

Total 



;i 



13 

29 

31 
13 

9 
12 
28 
18 

6 
10 



25 



25 



29 



30 



30 



30 



169 



APPENDIX A 
TIME-TABLES OF FRENCH LYCEESi 



315 



Classical Course 



Elementary 
Section 



emu 

Ah 



Grammar 
Section 



Superior Section 



French .... 

Latin 

Greek 

Modern Languages 
Mathematics . . 
Physics and Chemistry 
Mathematics, Elementary 

and Natural History 
History , . 
Geography . 
Philosophy . 
Drawing . . 



9i 



3 
10 



il 



H 



li 



(2) 



(2) 



(I) 

3 

6 

(2) 



Total 



20 20 20 20 



20 20 20| 20| 20| 18 



Modern Course 



French 

German (or English) . . . 
Second Language .... 

History 

Geography 

Arithmetic 

Mathematics 

Natural History ..... 

Writing 

Drawing • 

Physics and Chemistry . . . 

Practical Morals 

Philosophy 

Political Economy and 

Elementary Law .... 
History of Art and Civilization 
Bookkeeping 



4i 



4 



Class I 



o s 

.2 a 
Q 2 



4h 
(I) 

li 



li 



2 



.C CO 

Q 5 






6 

3 

4| 



Total 



23 23 25 23^ 25 24^ 26 



1 Copied from " The Making of Citizens," R. E, Hughes. 



3i6 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



APPENDIX B 

PROGRAM OF PHILLIPS ACADEMY ABOUT A CENTURY AFTER 
ITS ESTABLISHMENT^ 

English Department 
First Year :^-' 

Mathematics : Arithmetic. 

English : Grammar, reading, spelling, analysis. 

Geography : Political, physical. 

History: Ancient. 

Physiology. 
Second Year : — 

Mathematics : Algebra, geometry. 

English : Rhetoric, declamation and essays, English authors. 

History : United States. 

Latin : Comstock's lessons and Csesar. 

Botany. 
Third Year: — 

Mathematics : Algebra, geometry, trigonometry. 

Natural Science : Mechanics, physics. 

Modern languages : French, German. 

Latin : Caesar, composition, Cicero. 

History: England. 

English : Declamations and essays. 
Fourth Year: — 

Mathematics : Surveying and leveling, analytical geometry, differential 
calculus. 

English : English literature, original declamations. 

Philosophy : Mental and moral science. 

Natural Science : Astronomy, chemistry, geology. 

Civics : Political Economy. 

Modern languages : German, French. 

Classical Department 
First Year : — 

Latin: Lessons (Comstock), grammar, Caesar, exercises in writing. 
Mathematics : Arithmetic. 

English: Grammar and analysis, reading, dictations, study of words, 
declamation. 

1 Compiled from a catalogue of the academy for 1888. 



APPENDIX B 317 

Second Year : — 

Latin : Csesar, Sallust, CicerOi Virgil, 6k. I, compositioDi Roman history 
and geography. 

Greek : Grammar and lessons, Xenophon. 

Mathematics: Algebra. 

English : Readings, college requirements, composition, declamation. 
TAtrd Year: — 

Latin : Virgil, with reviews, composition, Roman history, and geography. 

Greek : Xenophon, composition. 

Modern Languages : French grammar and exercises, prose selections. 

Mathematics : Higher algebra, reviews. 

EngUsh : Readings, composition, declamation, elocution. 
Fourth Year: — 

Latin : Virgil, Cicero, composition, Roman antiquities, Ovid, Livy, Horace. 

Greek : Herodotus, Attic prose selections as basis for composition, Homer, 
Herodotus, history, geography and antiquities. 

Mathematics : Geometry, trigonometry, reviews. 

Natural Science : Mechanics, physics, chemistry. 

English : Art of composition with exercises, elocution, essays. 

Modern Languages : French, German. 



PROGRAM OF PHILLIPS EXETER WHEN FIRST FOUNDED 
IN x8x8i 

English Department 

For admission into this department the candidate must be at least twelve 
years of age, and must have been well instructed in reading and spelling, 
familiarly acquainted with arithmetic, through simple proportion with excep- 
tion of fractions, with Murray's English Grammar through syntax, and must be 
able to parse simple English sentences. 

The following is the course of instruction and study in the English Depart- 
ment, which, with special exceptions, will comprise three years : 
For the First Year : — 

English grammar, including exercises in reading, in parsing, and analyzing, 
in the correction of bad English, punctuation, and prosody; arithmetic; 
geography; and algebra through simple equations. 
For the Second Year : — 

English grammar continued; geometry; plane trigonometry and its appli- 
cation to heights and distances; mensuration of surfaces and solids; elements 

1 Copied from Brown's " Making of the Middle Schools," pp. 237-238. 



3i8 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

of ancient history; logic; rhetoric; English composition; declamation and 
exercises of the forensic kind. 
For the Third Year: — 

Surveying; navigation; elements of chemistry and natural philosophy, with 
experiments; elements of modern history, particularly of the United States; 
moral and political philosophy, with English composition, forensics, and 
declamation continued. 

Classical Department 
For the First Year : — 

Adam's Latin Grammar; Liber Primus, or a similar work; Viri Romani, or 
Caesar's Commentaries; Latin prosody; exercises in reading and making 
Latin; ancient and modern geography; Virgil and arithmetic. 
For the Second Year : — 

Virgil; arithmetic and exercises in reading and making Latin, continued; 
Valpey's Greek Grammar; Roman history; Cicero's Select Orations; Delec- 
tus; Dalzel's Collectanea Grseca Minora; Greek Testament; English gram- 
mar and declamation. 
For the Third Year : — 

The same Latin and Greek authors in revision; English grammar and 
declamation continued; Sallust; algebra; exercises in Latin and English 
translations, and composition. 
For the Advanced Class : — 

Collectanea Grseca Majora ; Q. Horatius Flaccus ; Titus Livius ; Parts of 
Terence's Comedies ; Excerpta Latina, or such Latin and Greek authors as 
may best comport with the student's future destination ; algebra ; geometry ; 
elements of ancient history ; Adam's Roman Antiquities, etc. 



THE PROGRAM OF THE BOSTON ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL FOR 
1878 READS AS FOLLOWS :i— 

First Year: — 

English — accounts of authors, with study of some of their best works; 
reading aloud; elementary composition, including practical applica- 
tions of grammar. 

Ancient History. 

Latin or French or German. 

Algebra. 

Principles of Arithmetic. 

Botany, after March i. 

1 Copied from Boston Report. 



APPENDIX B 319 

Second Year : — 

English. 

Mediaeval and Modern History, 

Latin or French or German. 

Plane Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 

Bookkeeping or Zoology, i hour. 

Physics, 3 hours. 
Third Year: — 

English — Milton and Shakespeare; reading aloud j essay writing. 

Modern History and Civil Government. 

Latin or French or German, 4 hours or 3 hours. 

Solid Geometry and Mensuration, 2 hours; Physics, 2 hours; Chemistry, 
2 hours; Descriptive Astronomy, i hour; Zoology and Botany, 2 hours 
(in place of Mathematics), 
The above program was subject to a number of regulations in regard to 
electives. 

PRESENT PROGRAM OF THE BOSTON HIGH SCHOOLS ^ 

First Year 
Prescribed Studies 
Physical Training. (Two points.) 
Hygiene. (One point.) 
Choral Practice. (One point.) 

English I. (Five points.) English and American authors, grammar, compo- 
sition, reading, speaking and debating. 
One of the following : (Four or five points.) 

{a) Algebra I., including quadratic equations, or 

Q>) Bookkeeping I., including commercial arithmetic, penmanship and 

commercial forms, or 
(/) A foreign language (Latin I., French I., or German I.). 

Elective Sttidies 

History I. Ancient History to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. 

Biology I. Botany and Zoology, or either. 

Manual Training I, 

Drawing I, 

Music I. (Two points only.) Harmony, 

Any subject in the prescribed list in any year may be chosen as an elective 
in that year. 

1 Copied from programs published by the Board of Education for zgo6-z907. 



320 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Second Year 
Prescribed Studies 
Physical Training. (Two points.) 
Hygiene. 

Choral Practice. (One point.) 
English II, (Four or five points.) Continuation of English I. 

Elective Studies 
History II. Mediaeval and early modern history to 1700 A.D. 
Mathematics II. 

(a) Algebra II., or 

(b) Algebra and Plane Geometry, or 
{c) Plane Geometry, 

Greek I. 

Latin II. 

French II. 

German II. 

Spanish I. 

Biology II. Botany and Zoology, or either. 

Physics I. 

Manual Training II, 

Drawing II, 

Music II. (Two points only.) Elementary harmonic analysis, form. 

Bookkeeping II. 

Phonography and Typewriting I, 

Commercial Geography. " 

Any study in the first year's list not already taken or successfully completed 
may, with the consent of the headmaster, be taken this year. 

Third Year 
Prescribed Studies 
Physical Training. (Two points.) 
Hygiene. 

Choral Practice. (One point.) 
English III. (Three, four, or five points.) 

Elective Studies 
History III. Modern European History from 1700 A.D, 
Mathematics III. 

(a) Algebra and Geometry, or 

(J>) Solid Geometry. 



APPENDIX B 321 



Greek II. 

Latin III. 

French III. 

German III. 

Spanish II. 

Physiology. 

Physics II. 

Chemistry I. 

Household Science and Arts. 

Drawing III. 

Music III. (Two points only.) Advanced harmonic analysis, counterpoint, 

form. 
Phonography and Typewriting II. 
Commercial Law. 
Civil Government. 

Any study in the earlier lists not already taken or successfully completed 
may, with the consent of the headmaster, be taken this year. 

Fourth Year 

Elective Studies 

English IV. Literature, composition, rhetoric, history, and formation of the 

English language, Chaucer. 
History IV. 

{a) The political history of the United States under the constitution, or 

(Jj) College preparatory history. 
Mathematics IV. Algebra and Trigonometry, 
Greek III. 
Latin IV. 
French IV. 
German IV. 
Spanish III. 
Chemistry II. 
Physical Geography. 
Phonography and Typewriting III. 
Drawing IV. 
Economics. 

Physical Training IV. (Two points.) 
Choral Practice. (One Point.) 

Any study in the earlier lists not already taken or successfully completed 
may, with the consent of the headmaster, be taken this year. 



322 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

The points offered for a diploma from one of these schools must include — 
(i) Six points in physical training. 

(2) One point in hygiene, 

(3) Three points in choral practice. 

(4) At least thirteen points in English. 

(5) At least seven points in the same foreign language, or in phonography 

and typewriting. 

(6) At least four points in mathematics or in bookkeeping. 

(7) At least three points in history. 

(8) At least three points in science. 

(9) Not more than fifteen points for drawing, household science and 

arts, manual training, and music combined are allowed to count 
towards a diploma. 

Boston now includes in her list of high schools a High School of Commerce. 
The program of studies for this school is as follows : — ^ 

First Year 

Required 
English. 
German. 

Penmanship, first half. 1 

Business Knowledge and Practice, second half. | 
Physics, one half year. V 

Physical Geography, one half. J 
Algebra (with commercial applications). 
General History, Ancient and Mediaeval. 

Second Year 

JRequired 
English. 
German. 

♦French or Spanish. 
Bookkeeping. 
Commercial Geography, one half year. 1 



Local Industries, one half year. 
Observational Geometry, first half. 
Commercial Arithmetic, second half. 



Elective {drop starred subject) 
Stenography (to be pursued three years). 



APPENDIX B 323 

Third Year 
Required 



English. 

German. 

♦French or Spanish. 

Chemistry. 

Typewriting. 

Modern History, first half. 1 

Economic History, second half. J 

Elective 
Bookkeeping. 
Stenography (continued). 
Free-hand Drawing. 

Fourth Year 

Required 

Commercial English, Advertising, Correspondence, first half. 

English, second half. 

German. 

♦French or Spanish. 

Algebra (review), one third year. 1 

Plane Geometry, two thirds year. J 

Typewriting. 

Commercial Law, first half. 1 

Civil Government, second half. J 

Elective 

Bookkeeping, Accounting, Typewriting. 
Stenography and Typewriting. 
Mechanical Drawing. 
Commercial Design. 
Chemistry, Applications. 
Economics, Applications, first half. 1 
Political Economy, second half. J 



APPENDIX C 

ACADEMIC SYLLABUS FOR WEW YORK SCHOOLS, 1905. 
ACADEMIC SUBJECTS! 



Group I. — Language and Literature 



(4 First-year English) 
(3 Second-year English) 

3 Third-year English 

3 Fourth-year English 

(5 First-year Latin) 
I Latin grammar 
I Elementary Latin composition 

3 Caesar 

4 Cicero 
4 Virgil 

I Latin composition 

I Translation of prose at sight 

I Translation of poetry at sight 



English 

2 English grammar 

2 History of the English language 

and Uterature 

Ancient 

(5 First-year Greek) 
I Greek grammar 
I Elementary. Greek composition 

3 Anabasis 
3 Iliad 

I Greek composition 

I Translation of prose at sight 

I Translation of Homer at sight 



(5 First-year German) 
5 Elementary German 
5 Intermediate German 
5 Advanced German 

(5 First-year French) 
5 Elementary French 



Modern Foreign 

5 Intermediate French 
S Advanced French 
(5 First -year Spanish) 
5 Elementary Spanish 
5 Intermediate Spanish 



Group II. — Mathematics 

5 Plane geometry 
2 Solid geometry 
2 Trigonometry 



2 Advanced arithmetic 
5 Elementary algebra 

2 Intermediate algebra 

3 Advanced algebra 

1 As published by the New York Education Department. 



APPENDIX C 



325 



5 Physics 

5 Chemistry 

5 Biology 

2j Elementary botany 

2^ Elementary zoology 



Group III. — Science 

2} Physiology and hygiene 
5 Advanced botany 
5 Advanced zoology 
5 Physical geography 
3 Agriculture 



Group IV. — History and Social Science 
3 or 5 Ancient history 
3 or 5 European history 
3 or 5 English history 



5 American history with civics 

2 Civics 

2 Economics 



Group V. — Business Subjects 



4 Elementary bookkeeping 

3 Advanced bookkeeping 

2 Business practice and technics 

2 Business arithmetic 

2 Commercial law 

2 History of commerce 



3 Commercial geography 

2 Business correspondence 

1 Business writing 

3 Stenography (50 words) 
3 Stenography (loo words) 

2 Typewriting 



Group VI. — Other Subjects 
2 History and principles of educa- Advanced drawing 



tion 

3 Psychology and principles of edu- 
cation 

3 Drawing 



3 Course one 
2 Course two 
2 Course three 
2 First -year home science 
2 Second-year home science 
2 First-year shopwork 
2 Second-year shopwork 

The numerals prefixed to the subjects in the above list indicate the number 
of lessons a week for a year and also the number of counts to be earned 
thereby. 



MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR AN APPROVED COURSE 
IN NEW YORK HIGH SCHOOLS 

A course of study in a high school or academy to receive the approval of 
the state Commissioner of Education, as required by chapter 1031 of the 
laws of 1895, entitled "An act to encourage and promote the professional 
training of teachers," must include 2880 recitation periods, of which the 
following subjects must be a part : — 



326 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

English. The course in English must be continuous throughout the four 
years, and must provide adequate instruction in — 

Literature 

Rhetoric and composition .... 494 hours ^ 

Grammar 

History. The course in history must include the three following courses, 
each of which should be continuous throughout the year : — 

Ancient history 1 14 hours 

English history 114 hours 

American history with the development 

of civic institutions 152 hours 

Mathematics, The course in mathematics must include : — 

Algebra (through quadratics) . . . 190 hours 
Plane geometry 190 hours 

Science. The course in science must embrace biology (including human 
physiology) and physics. The laboratory method of teaching these subjects 
is prescribed. 

Biology 190 hours 

Physics 190 hours 

Foreign Languages. The course in foreign languages must include : — 

Latin . 380 hours 

or 
French 380 hours 

or 
German 380 hours 

Drawing. The course in drawing must be continuous throughout the 
four years, and must provide adequate instruction for 228 hours. 

Drawing 228 hours 

Vocal Music. The course in vocal music must be continuous throughout 
the four years, and should provide adequate instruction in sight singing from 
the staff and the use of common technical terms. 

Vocal music 152 hours 

The number of hours required in each subject is based on a school year of 
38 weeks as a minimum. 

1 The term " hour " as used in this course means a recitation period of not less than 
45 minutes. 



APPENDIX D 
PROGRAM OF 1863 OF THE ST. LOUIS HIGH SCHOOL 1 

I. General Course 

First Year. Algebra; German or Latin; English Analysis -|; Physical 
Geography \ ; Drawing. 

Second Year, Geometry ; German or Latin ; Natural Philosophy \ ; Chem- 
istry \ ; Bookkeeping \ ; Ancient Geography \ ; Drawing. 

Third Year, Plane Trigonometry or Botany \ ; Mensuration and Surveying 
or Zoology \ ; Spherical Trigonometry and Navigation »or Zoology \ ; 
Civil Engineering or Botany \ ; Physiology | ; Astronomy ^ ; Latin or 
French and German ; History, Ancient, Middle Ages, and Modern. 

Fourth Year, Analytical Geometry \ ; Calculus \ ; Shakespeare f ; Latin 
or German and French ; Intellectual Philosophy \ ; Moral Philosophy \ ; 
English Language and Literature | ; Geology \ ; Constitution of United 
States \. 

II. Classical Course 

First Year. Algebra ; Latin ; English Parsing and Analysis \ ; Drawing ; 
Physical Geography \. 

Second Year, Latin ; Greek ; Geometry \ ; Ancient Geography \ ; Drawing. 

Third Year, Latin ; Greek History. 

Fourth Year, Latin ; Greek ; Shakespeare | ; English Language and Litera- 
ture I ; Constitution of United States \, 

ST. LOUIS HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAM OF 1874-1875^ 

First Year, Latin ; Algebra ; Physical Geography ; Rhetoricals ; Drawing. 

Second Year. Latin ; Algebra and Geometry ; Natural Philosophy ; Rhetor- 
icals ; Drawing. 

Third Year. Latin or French or German ; Chemistry \ ; Physiology \ ; 
Geometry ; Universal History ; History of Art. 

Fourth Year. Latin or French or German or Greek ; Trigonometry \ ; 
Constitution of United States ; History of English Literature ; Shake- 
speare or Milton \ ; Botany ; Zoology or Geology \ or \, 

* As published in the St, Louis Report for 1863. 

* As published in the St. Louis Report. 

327 



328 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

PROGRAM OF ST. LOUIS HIGH SCHOOL IN 1884-1885I 

First Year. All study Latin, Arithmetic, Bookkeeping, Rhetoricals, Drawing; 

and elect Literary German, Business German, or Physiology. 
Second Year. All study Rhetoricals and Algebra, and elect one of the follow- 
ing courses : — 
I. Latin and Physics, Drawing, Shorthand and Bookkeeping, Business 

German. 
II. Latin, Greek, Physics. 

III. Latin, Art, Physics. 

IV. Latin, Literary German, Physics. 

Those not taking I. are allowed to continue drawing. 
Third Year. All study Rhetoricals, Algebra, and Geometry, General History, 
and elect : — 

I. French, Molecular Physics, and Chemistry. 
II. German, Molecular Physics, and Chemistry. 

III. Latin, Molecular Physics, and Chemistry. 

IV. Latin, Greek. 
Drawing optional in this year. 

Fourth Year. All study Rhetoricals, Shakespeare, English Literature, English 
and American History, and elect : — 
I. German. II. French. III. Latin. 
IV. Latin, Higher Mathematics, or Natural Science or Mental and Moral 
Philosophy, or Laboratory Chemistry or Greek (the boys being 
allowed to elect two of these studies, and girls one). 
Drawing optional in this year. 
Choral music throughout the four years. 

COURSES OF STUDY IN THE ST. LOUIS HIGH SCHOOLS 
JANUARY, 19052 

I. Scientific Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year). Physiology (second 

half-year) — required ; Latin, German, French, and Spanish — alternative. 
Second Year, English, Geometry, Physics, and History — required; Latin, 

German, French, and Spanish — alternative. 
Third Year. English, History, Physics (first half-year). Chemistry (second 

half-year), and Algebra, and Geometry — required; Latin, German, 

French, and Spanish — alternative — two required. 
Fourth Year. English, History, Shakespeare, Chemistry, and Trigonometry — 

required; Latin, German, French, and Spanish — alternative — two 

required. 

1 From the corresponding Report. 2 ^g published by the Board of Education. 



APPENDIX D 329 

II. Classical Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year), Physiology (second 

half-year), and Latin — required. 
Second Year. English, Geometry, Physics, Greek, and Latin — required. 
Third Year. English, History, Greek, and Latin — required ; German, 

French, and Spanish — alternative. 
Fourth Year. English, History, Shakespeare, Greek, and Latin — required ; 

German, French, and Spanish — alternative. 

in. General Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year). Physiology (second 
half-year) — required ; Latin, German, French, and Spanish — alternative. 

Second Year. English, Geometry, and Physics — required; Latin, German, 
French, and Spanish — alternative. 

Third Year. English and History — required; Physics (first half-year) and 
Chemistry (second half-year), and Algebra and Geometry — alternative; 
Latin, German, French, and Spanish — alternative — two required. 

Fourth Year. English, Shakespeare, and History — required; Latin, Ger- 
man, French, and Spanish — alternative — two required; Chemistry, 
Trigonometry, and Psychology (first half-year), Ethics (second half-year) 

— alternative. 

IV. Art Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year), Physiology (second 

half-year), and Drawing — required. 
Second Year. English, Geometry, Physics, and Drawing and History of Art 

— required. 

Third Year. English, History, and Drawing and History of Art — re- 
quired; Physics (first half-year) and Chemistry (second half-year), and 
Algebra and Geometry — alternative; Latin, German, French, and Span- 
ish — alternative. 

Fourth Year. English, History, Shakespeare, and Drawing and History of Art 

— required; Chemistry, Trigonometry, and Psychology (first half-year), 
Ethics (second half-year) — alternative; Latin, German, French, and 
Spanish — alternative. 

V. College Classical Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year), Physiology (second 
half-year), and Latin — required; German and French — alternative. 

Second Year. English, Geometry, Greek, and Latin — required; German 
and French — alternative. 



330 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Third Year, English, History, Greek, Latin, and Algebra and Geometry — 
required; German and French — alternative. 

Fourth Year. English, History, Shakespeare, Greek, Latin, Physics, Labora- 
tory Physics, and Studies needed for College — required. 

VI. College Scientific Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year), Physiology (second 
half-year), and Latin — required; German and French — alternative. 

Second Year. English, Geometry, Physics, and Latin — required; German 
and French — alternative. 

Third Year. English, History, Physics (first half-year), and Chemistry (sec- 
ond half-year). Algebra and Geometry, and Latin — required; German 
and French — alternative. 

Fourth Year. English, History, Shakespeare, Chemistry, Trigonometry, and 
Studies needed for College — required; Latin, German, and French — 
alternative. 

VII. Commercial Course 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year). Physiology (second 

half-year), and Arithmetic and Penmanship — required; Latin, German, 

French, Spanish, and Drawing — alternative. 
Second Year, English, Geometry, Physics, and Bookkeeping — required; 

Latin, German, French, Spanish, and Drawing and History of Art — 

alternative. 
Third Year. English, History, Stenography, Typewriting, Bookkeeping 

(first half-year), and Commercial Law (second half-year) — required; 

Latin, German, French, and Spanish — alternative. 
Fourth Year, English, Shakespeare, History (first half-year). Commercial 

Geography (second half-year). Civics (first half-year). Economics (second 

half-year), Stenography and Typewriting — required; Latin, German, 

French, and Spanish — alternative; Chemistry and Psychology (first 

half-year). Ethics (second half-year) — alternative. 

VIII. Manual Training Course 

First Year, English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year). Physiology (second 
half-year). Drawing and Manual Training — required; Latin, German, 
French, and Spanish — optional. 

Second Year. English, Geometry, Physics, Drawing, and Manual Training — 
required; Latin, German, French, and Spanish — optional. 

Third Year, English, History, Algebra, and Geometry, Drawing, and Manual 
Training — required; Latin, German, French, Spanish, and Physics 
(first half-year), and Chemistry (second half-year) — alternative. 



APPENDIX D 331 

Fourth Year, English, Shakespeare, History, Trigonometry, Drawing, and 
Manual Training — required; Latin, German, French, Spanish, and 
Chemistry — alternative. 

IX. Course Preparatory to Teachers College 

First Year. English, Algebra, Botany (first half-year). Physiology (second, 
half-year). Music, Penmanship, Drawing, and Latin — required. 

Second Year. English, Geometry, Physics, Music, Penmanship, Drawing and 
History of Art, and Latin — required. 

Fourth Year. English, Shakespeare, History, Physiography, Music, Pen- 
manship, Drawing and History of Art, and Latin — required. 



APPENDIX E 
PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR CHICAGO HIGH SCHOOLS i 

The studies are arranged in four lists, corresponding to the four years a 
pupil is supposed to spend in school. 

The first list contains the studies open to a pupil's election in his first year. 
The second, third, and fourth lists contain, respectively, the studies open to 
his election in each of the following years. 

No pupil will be allowed to pursue a study which is in advance of his 
attainments. 

Pupils will not be allowed to take a study which is a natural sequence of 
one which has not been successfully pursued. Pupils entering the first year 
will be expected not to take more than one foreign language, unless able to 
enter an advanced class in the second language. 

Pupils must have been in attendance at least one year before taking up the 
study of stenography and typewriting. 



Subjects 



First Year 

English — Classics, Grammar, Composition, and Rhetoric 4 40 .8 

Latin 4 40 .8 

German 4 40 .8 

French 4 40 .8 

Spanish 

Mathematics — Elementary Algebra, including Quadratic 

Equations 4 40 .8 

Science — Physiography 6 30 .6 

Physiology (required by state law) .... 
Commercial Studies — Accounting, Commercial Arith- 
metic, Bookkeeping, Business Forms, Penmanship 6 40 .8 

Drawing 2 40 .4 

Music I 40 .2 

Physical Culture i 40 .2 





(0 

i 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


6 


30 


4 


lO 


6 


40 


2 


40 


I 


40 


I 


40 



' As published by the Board of Education, 1908. 



APPENDIX E 



333 



Subjects 



K H 3 

Sum 

& W M 



[t] (/) 

1^ 



Second Year 

English — Classics, Grammar, Composition, and Rhetoric 

Latin — Caesar (four books), Prose Composition 

German 

French 

Greek 

Spanish 

Mathematics — Plane Geometry 

Science — Biology, including either Zoology 20 weeks and 
Botany 20 weeks, or Zoology 40 weeks, or Botany 
40 weeks 

Commercial Studies — Stenography and Typewriting 

Advanced Accounting , 

Drawing 

Music 

Physical Culture 

History — Ancient History, chiefly that of Greece and 
Rome, to the Fall of the Western Empire 

Third Year 

Enghsh — Grammar (first half-year), Qassics, Rhetoric 
and Composition, and History of Literature . 

Latin — Cicero or Virgil, Prose Composition . 

German 

French 

Greek 

Spanish 

Mathematics — Advanced Algebra 

Solid Geometry 

History — History of England, particularly England since 

1485 

Mediaeval and Modern European History, particularly 
that of continental Europe 

Science — Physics or Chemistry 



40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 



40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 

40 



40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
20 
20 

40 

40 
40 



334 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Subjects 



^2g 

S « 
D M S 






Commercial Studies — Commercial Geography (with 
special attention to " Commercial " Chicago) 
Advanced Stenography and Typewriting . 
Drawing . . . , . . . , 

Music . 

Physical Culture . 

Fourth Year 

English — Classics, Rhetoric and Composition, and 
History of Literature ...... 

Latin — Virgil or Cicero 

German 

French . . 

Greek 

Spanish 

Mathematics — Trigonometry 

Arithmetic 

History — American History, particularly the history of 
the United States since the Revolution, and Civics 

Science — Chemistry or Physics 

Geology 

Astronomy 

Commercial Studies — Commercial Law, one-half year . 

Economics, one-half year 

Drawing ........*. 

Music 

Physical Culture ...,.».. 



40 
40 
40 
40 
40 



4 


40 


. 


5 


40 


I. 


5 


40 


I. 


5 


40 


I. 


5 


40 


I. 


5 


40 


I. 


4 


20 


. 


4 


20 




4 


40 


. 


6 


40 


. 


4 


20 




4 


20 


. 


4 


20 




4 


20 


.4 


2 


40 


.4 


I 


40 


. 


I 


40 


.- 



APPENDIX E 



335 



MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOLS 

Course of Study 



Latin Course 



W^ 



First Year 
English 

Algebra 

Physiology 

Physiography .... 
Mechanical Drawing . . . 

"Woodwork 

Free-hand Drawing , 
Gymnasium .... 
Total . . . • . 

Second Year 
English Literature 
Plane Geometry .... 
Latin . . . . 
Mechanical Drawing . 
Blacksmithing .... 
Foundry and Pattern Work 
Gymnasium .... 
Total 

Third Year 

English 

Solid Geometry . . 
Advanced Algebra 

Physics 

Latin 

Machine Shop Practice . . 
Machine or Arch. Drawing 
Free-hand Drawing . 
Gymnasium .... 
Total 



40 
40 
10 
30 
40 
40 
40 
40 







4.3 


40 


4 


.8 


40 


4 


.8 


40 


4 


.8 


40 


4 


.8 


20 


10 


.4 


20 


10 


•4 


40 


I 


.1 




4.1 


40 


2 


•4 


20 


4 


.4 


20 


4 


.4 


40 


6 


.8 


40 


4 


.8 


40 


6 


.6 


40 


4 


.8 


40 


2 


.4 


40 


I 


.1 



4.7 



2>Z^ 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Latin Course 



Fourth Year 
American History 
Civil Government 
Trigonometry .... 
Engineering .... 

Chemistry 

Latin 

Machine or Arch. Design . 

English 

Free-hand Drawing . 
Gymnasium .... 
Total 



20 
20 
20 
20 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 



£1 



Modern Language Course 



First Year 

English 

Algebra 

Physiology ..... 
Physiography .... 
Mechanical Drawing . 

Woodwork 

Free-hand Drawing . 
Gymnasium .... 

Total . . . . 

Second Year 
English Literature 
Plane Geometry .... 
Spanish, French, or German 
Mechanical Drawing . 
Blacksmithing .... 
Foundry and Pattern Work 
Gymnasium .... 

Total 





s 


40 


4 


40 


4 


10 


4 


30 


6 


40 


4 


40 


8 


40 


I 


40 


I 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


20 


10 


20 


ID 


40 


I 



APPENDIX E 



337 



Modern Language Course 



o w 



Third Year 

English 40 2 .4 

Solid Geometry 20 4 .4 

Advanced Algebra 20 4 

Physics 40 6 

Spanish, French, or German 40 4 .8 

Machine Shop Practice 40 6 .6 

Machine or Arch. Drawing 40 4 .8 

Free-hand Drawing 40 2 .4. 

Gymnasium 40 I 

Total 4.7 

Fourth Year 

American History 20 4 .4 

Civil Government 20 4 .4 

Trigonometry .20 4 4 

Engineering 20 4 .4 

Chemistry 40 6 .8 

Spanish, French, or German 40 4 

Machine or Arch. Design 40 4 

English 40 2 .4 

Free-hand Drawing . 40 2 .4 

Gymnasium 40 i 

Total 4.9 



Scientific Course 



o w 



First Year 

English 40 4 

Algebra 4° 4 

Physiology 10 4 .2 

Physiography 30 6 .6 

Mechanical Drawing 40 4 .8 

Woodwork 40 8 .8 

Free-hand Drawing 40 i 

Gymnasium 40 i 

Total 4.3 



338 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



Scientific Course 



g 

H 
^ 




40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


6 


40 


4 


20 


10 


20 


10 


40 


I 


40 


2 


20 


4 


20 


4 


40 


6 


40 


4 


40 


6 


40 


4 


40 


2 


40 


X 


20 


4 


20 


4 


20 


4 


20 


4 


40 


6 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


4 


40 


I 



Second Year 
English Literature 
Plane Geometry .... 
Zoology or Botany 
Mechanical Drawing . 
Blacksmithing .... 
Foundry and Pattern Work 
Gymnasium .... 

Total 

Third Year 

English 

Solid Geometry .... 
Advanced Algebra 

Physics 

Modern History .... 
Machine Shop Practice 
Machine or Arch. Drawing 
Free-hand Drawing . 
Gymnasium .... 

Total 

Fourth Year 
American History 
Civil Government 
Trigonometry . . 
Engineering .... 

Chemistry 

Machine or Arch. Design . , 

English 

Free-hand Drawing . 
Gymnasium .... 

Total 



Note. — Students must receive credits of at least four points in each year 
for graduation. 



APPENDIX E 339 



Evening High Schools 

Classes in any subjects taught in the day high schools will be organized in 
the evening high schools whenever such subjects are called for by at least 
twenty candidates, such classes to continue until the membership falls below 
fifteen. Evening schools are open five evenings a week during October, 
November, December, January, February, and March. 



APPENDIX F 

THE BARNES HIGH SCHOOL LAW OF KANSAS, LAWS OF 

1905 1 

Sec. I. May receive County Aid. In every county in the state of Kansas 
in which one or more school districts or cities of less than 16,000 inhabitants 
shall have maintained high schools with courses of instruction admitting those 
who complete the same to the freshman class of the college of liberal arts and 
sciences of the University of Kansas, the county commissioners shall levy a 
tax each year of not less than one fourth of a mill nor more than three mills 
on the dollar of the assessed valuation of the taxable property within such 
counties for the purpose of creating a general high school fund. 

Sec. 2. Levy made. When. The first levy shall be made when the result 
of the election or petition is determined, and a similar levy shall be made 
each year thereafter : Provided, No levy shall be made until one or more such 
high schools shall have been maintained in the county the preceding year. 

Sec. 3. Funds Collected. Said tax shall be levied and collected in the same 
manner as other county taxes, and, when collected, the county treasurer shall 
pay the same to the treasurers of the school districts maintaining high schools 
according to the provisions of this act, as required by law, but no part of said 
general high school fund shall ever be used for other than high school purposes. 

Sec. 4. Apportionment of Funds. The county treasurer shall pay to the 
treasurers of said school districts a pro rata part of the said general high 
school fund apportioned to the several school districts according to the aver- 
age daily attendance of resident pupils of the county in the high schools of 
each the preceding school year, but no apportionment shall be made to any 
school district after it has discontinued its high school. 

Sec. 5. Principal shall make Report. It shall be the duty of the princi- 
pal of each such high school, at the expiration of the school year, to make a 
report, under oath, to the county superintendent, showing the total enroll- 
ment and the daily attendance of each pupil, and the average daily attend- 
ance in his high school for that year, and to furnish such other reports as the 
county superintendent may require, and his last month's salary shall not be 
due until such reports shall have been duly made. 

1 From the Kansas School Laws. 



APPENDIX F 341 

Sec. 6. County Superintendents shall certify to County Clerk. It shall be 
the duty of the county superintendent to certify to the county clerk and to 
the county treasurer, on or before the 25th day of July of each year, the aver- 
age daily attendance in the several high schools of the county complying with 
the provisions of this act for the year ending on the 30th day of June preced- 
ing, and to certify to the board of county commissioners the amount necessary 
for the maintenance of such high schools the ensuing year, and the county 
commissioners shall make such levy (not to exceed three mills on the dollat 
of the assessed valuation of the taxable property vi^ithin such county) as may 
be necessary to produce such amount ; and in case the county commissioners 
shall fail to make such levy, then the county superintendent shall make a 
suitable levy, and certify the same to the county clerk of such county, who 
shall enter upon the tax-rolls the levy so made by the county superintendent. 

Sec. 7. Tuition Free. Tuition shall be free in all such high schools to 
pupils residing in the county where such schools are located. 

Sec. 8. Courses of Study. At least two courses of instruction shall be pro- 
vided, each requiring four years' work ; namely, a college preparatory course, 
which shall fully prepare those who complete it to enter the freshman class 
of the college of liberal arts and sciences of the University of Kansas, and a 
general course, designed for those who do not intend to continue school work 
beyond the high school. 

Sec. 9. Some Cities and Counties Exempt. Cities having more than 16,000 
inhabitants and counties having heretofore established county high schools 
or which may hereafter establish county high schools under the laws now in 
force shall be exempt from the operation of this act. 

Sec. 10. When in Force. This act shall not be in force in any county until 
its provisions are adopted therein by a majority vote of the electors as herein 
provided. At the next general election, unless previously submitted, the fol- 
lowing proposition shall be submitted in each county or part of county in the 
state to which this law may apply, viz. : " May the provisions of the high 
school act of 1905 apply in this county?" The election shall be conducted 
and such proposition shall be voted on and the votes then canvassed and 
returns made in all respects as provided by law. "Whenever a majority of the 
voters voting in any county, or the part of any county to which this law may 
apply, at such election shall be in favor of such proposition, the provisions of 
this act shall apply in such county from the time such result is ascertained. 
If the proposition fails to carry at the next general election, it may be resub- 
mitted in each county or part of county in the state to which this law shall 
apply upon petition to the board of county commissioners by twenty-five per 
cent of the taxpayers, at any general election hereafter. 



APPENDIX G 
DEFINITIONS OF HIGH SCHOOLS i 

Minnesota ; 

The following are the requisites of a high school : — 

1. It shall be in session not less than nine months in the year. 

2. It shall admit, free of tuition charge, students of either sex resident in 
the state, but those only who shall pass a proper examination in arithmetic, 
spelling, English grammar, reading, writing, geography, and United States 
history. 

3. It shall have regular and orderly courses of study, embracing all the 
branches prescribed by the state high school board, and requisite for admission 
to the collegiate department of the state university, and an optional English 
or business course in addition thereto or in lieu thereof. 

4. It shall be subject to such rules and regulations, consistent with the 
provisions of law, as may be prescribed by the state high school board, and 
shall be open to visitation at all times by any member of such board, and by 
any inspector thereof. 

Ohio 
High School Defined. A high school is hereby defined as a school of higher 
grade than an elementary school, in which instruction and training are given 
in approved courses in the history of the United States and other countries ; 
composition, rhetoric, English and American literature ; algebra and geom- 
etry ; natural science, political or mental science, ancient or modern foreign 
languages, or both ; commercial and industrial branches, or such of the 
above-named branches as the length of its curriculum may make possible, 
and such other branches of higher grade than those to be taught in the 
elementary schools, and such advanced studies and advanced reviews of the 
common branches as the board of education may direct. 

STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS 

Minnesota, 1906 Edition of School Laws. 

1416. There is hereby appropriated annually out of any moneys in the state 
treasury not otherwise appropriated the following sums : — ■ 

1. For aid to high schools, two hundred and seventeen thousand dollars. 

2. For aid to graded schools, seventy-nine thousand dollars. 

3. For aid to semi-graded schools, sixty-seven thousand dollars. 

4. For aid to common schools, one hundred thousand dollars. 

1 Copied from late editions of the school laws of the different states given. 



APPENDIX G 343 

5. For necessary expenses of high school board, and salaries and expenses 
of high and graded school inspectors and examiners, ninety-five hundred 
dollars, to be drawn from the appropriation for high and graded schools in 
proportion to the amounts respectively apportioned to each. 

Such sums, or such part of said sums as may be necessary, together with 
any further sums appropriated for such aid, shall be available August i of 
each year. ('99 c. 352 s. 28 ; '03 c. 184 s. 2.) See 1905 cc. 142, 296, 320. 

1417. The board shall apportion the amount appropriated for such schools 
equally among the high schools and the graded schools entitled thereto, but 
no high school shall receive more than fifteen hundred dollars per year, nor 
any graded school more than five hundred and fifty dollars per year ; nor shall 
the amount so paid any high school exceed its actual expenditure for such 
work, exclusive of building and repairs, nor shall any graded school connected 
with, or in the same district with, an aided high school share in such 
apportionment. ('99 c. 352 ; '03 cc. 184, 366.) See 1905 c. 320. 

141 8. Not more than seven high schools in the same county shall be 
included in any apportionment, and any high school so included shall receive 
aid for at least two years, if it continues to comply with the requirements of 
law and to do efficient work. In case any high school in a county already 
having seven aided high schools shall apply for aid, the board may admit 
such school to apportionment in place of the first school that has received such 
aid for two years. ('99 c. 352 ; '01 c. 19 s. i.) 

1420. In addition to the amount hereinbefore provided, seven hundred 
and fifty dollars a year is hereby appropriated out of the general revenue fund 
to each high school having a four-year course, and organized classes in each 
of the four grades therein, which shall provide special normal instruction in 
the common branches. The schools entitled to such aid shall be determined 
annually by the high school board, and the money paid in the same manner 
as provided in case of other high schools. ('03 c. 359.) 

New York, the Regents are charged with the apportionment, annually, of 
about ^550,000 to such secondary schools as have membership in the university 
and comply with all the regulations established by the Regents. 

California, 1907 Edition of School Laws, acts of 1905 and 1906. 

Sec. I. There is hereby levied annually for the fifty-fifth and fifty-sixth 
fiscal years, ending respectively June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and four, 
and June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and five, an ad valorem tax of one and 
one half cents upon every hundred dollars of the value of the taxable property 
of the State, which tax shall be collected by the several officers charged with 
the collection of State taxes, in the same manner and at the same time as 
other State taxes are collected, upon all and any class of property, which tax 
is for the support of regularly established high schools of the State. And it is 



344 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

further enacted that, beginning with the fifty-seventh fiscal year, to wit: 
July first, nineteen hundred and five, it shall be the duty of the State Controller, 
annually, between the tenth day of August and the first day of September, at 
the time that he is required to estimate the amount necessary for other school 
taxes, to estimate the amount necessary to be levied for the support of high 
schools. This amount he shall estimate by determining the amount required 
at fifteen dollars per pupil in average daily attendance in all the duly estab- 
lished high schools of the State for the last preceding school year, as certified 
to him by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. This amount the 
State Controller, between the dates above given, must certify to the State 
Board of Equalization. 

Sec. 2. The State Board of Equalization at the time when it annually 
determines and fixes the rate of State taxes to be collected, must declare the 
levy and the rate of tax for the support of State high schools in conformity 
with the provisions of section one of this Act. 

Sec. 3. The money collected as provided in sections one and two hereof, 
after deducting the proportionate share of expenses of collecting the same to 
which other taxes are subject, must be paid into the State treasury to be by 
the State Treasurer converted into a separate fund, hereby created, to be 
called the " State High School Fund." 

Sec. 4. The money paid into the State High School Fund is hereby 
appropriated without reference to fiscal years for the use and support of 
regularly established State high schools and is exempt from the provisions of 
part three, title one, article eighteen, of an Act entitled " An Act to establish 
a Political Code," approved March twelfth, eighteen hundred and seventy- 
two, relating to the State Board of Examiners. 

Sec. 5. The money in said State High School Fund shall be apportioned 
to the high schools of the State by the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction in the following manner: He shall apportion one third of the 
annual amount among the county, district, city, union, or joint union high 
schools of the State, irrespective of the number of pupils enrolled or in 
average daily attendance therein, except as hereinafter provided; the re- 
maining two thirds of the annual amount he shall apportion among such 
schools pro rata upon the basis of average daily attendance as shown by the 
ofHcial reports of the County, or City and County School Superintendents for 
the last preceding school year; provided^ that such high schools have been 
organized under the law of the State, or have been recognized as existing 
under the high school laws of the State and have maintained the grade of 
instruction required by law of the high schools; and provided, that no school 
shall be eligible to a share of said State High School Fund that has not 
during the last preceding school year employed at least two regularly certifi- 
cated high school teachers for a period of not less than one hundred and 



APPENDIX G 345 

eighty days with not less than twenty pupils in average daily attendance for 
such length of time, except in newly established high schools wherein the 
minimum average daily attendance for the first year of one hundred and 
eighty days may be but twelve pupils and but one teacher; and provided^ 
that before receiving State aid, each school shall furnish satisfactory evidence 
to the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the possession of a reasonably 
good equipment of building, laboratory, and library, and of having maintained, 
during the preceding school year, proper high school instruction for a term of 
at least one hundred and eighty days; provided further, that the foregoing 
provisions relating to the average daily attendance and the number of 
teachers employed shall not apply in any case where by reason of conflagra- 
tion or other public calamity it shall be, or has been, impossible or impracti- 
cable to have or to hold school in any school or school district so affected, 
for a period of one hundred and eighty days or to have an average daily 
attendance of not less than twenty pupils. (Amended June 14, 1906; in 
effect immediately.) 

Rhode Island, School Laws of 1900, Chapter 544. 

Sec. 3. Any town maintaining a high school having a course of study 
approved by the state board of education, and in the town of New Shoreham 
any consolidated district provided for in section i of chapter 57 of the 
General Laws, shall be entitled to receive annually from the state twenty 
dollars for each pupil in average attendance for the first twenty-five pupils, 
and ten dollars for each pupil in average attendance for the second twenty- 
five pupils. Any town not maintaining a high school, which shall make 
provision for the free attendance of its children at some high school or 
academy approved by the state board of education, shall be entitled to re- 
ceive aid from the state for each pupil in such attendance upon the same basis 
and to the same extent as if it maintained a high school by itself. 

Sec. 4. All applications for aid under this act shall be made to the com- 
missioner of public schools by the school committee of the town ; and said 
application must be accompanied by the certificate of the principal teacher 
of the school on account of which the application is made, setting forth the 
facts relating to the attendance which is made the basis of the application. 

Pennsylvania, School Laws of 1905. 

CIV. A high school maintaining four years of study beyond the branches 
of learning prescribed to be taught in the common schools and called the 
common branches shall be known as a high school of the first grade; a high 
school maintaining three years of study beyond the common branches shall 
be known as a high school of the second grade; a high school maintaining 
two years of study beyond the common branches shall be known as a high 
school of the third grade: Provided, That the reviews necessary for the 



346 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

prosecution of high school studies shall not be excluded from the estimate of 
the year's study beyond the common branches (z). 

CV. From the annual appropriations in aid of high schools, a high 
school of the first grade shall each year receive a sum not exceeding eight 
hundred dollars, a high school of the second grade a sum not exceeding 
six hundred dollars, a high school of the third grade a sum not exceed- 
ing four hundred dollars. If the appropriation is insiifficient to pay the 
above amount to the several high schools, then the appropriation shall be 
distributed to the schools of the respective grades in such a manner that 
each school shall receive a sum proportional to the number of years of 
advanced study maintained in its course of instruction : Provided, That any 
high school established at the fall opening of the school year, beginning 
on the first Monday of June, one thousand eight hundred and ninety-five, 
shall be paid at the end of the year as a high school of the third grade (a). 

Wisconsin, School Laws of 1907. 

Free High Schools — State Aid may be withheld — (Chapter 527, Laws of 1907, 
amending section 496, Statutes of 1898, as amended by chapter 345, laws of 
1901, and chapter 214, Laws of 1899.) Section i^,'^^. i. Any free high school 
district which shall have established a free high school according to the pro- 
visions of these statutes, and shall have maintained the same for not less than 
eight months in any school year, shall be entitled to receive from the general 
fund of the state annually one half of the amount actually expended for in- 
struction in its high school during such year over and above the amount re- 
quired by law to be expended for common school purposes, but not to exceed 
in one year five hundred dollars to one district ; provided, this limitation shall 
not apply to town free high schools. 

2. To obtain such aid the high school board, or in cities not under a county 
superintendent, the president and secretary of the board of education and the 
treasurer, shall on or before the first day of August, report in duplicate to the 
state superintendent, under their oaths, the amount actually expended for in- 
struction during the previous school year, specifying the several items thereof, 
with the date and object of each fully. Thereupon said superintendent shall 
fix the amount to be paid such district and certify the same to the secretary of 
state with one of such reports annexed ; provided, that the state superin- 
tendent may withhold such state aid from, any free high school district in which 
the scope and character of the work are not maintained in such manner as to 
meet his approval or in which the high school building, the outhouses and 
grounds, or the furniture and equipment are not maintained in good condition 
and kept clean and free from any unsanitary features ; or in which the high 
school is not provided with sufficient equipment, including globes, maps, black- 
boards, library, scientific apparatus, and other essentials for the proper work 



APPENDIX G 347 

of the school or for failure to comply with any of the provisions of the free 
high school law. He may order and direct that an amount equal to the whole 
or part of such state aid for any year shall be expended in the purchase of 
proper equipment, and in case of failure of the district to comply with such 
direction he shall withhold from the aid to that district an amount equal to the 
sum ordered to be expended. On such certificate, at any time after the first 
day of December, the certified amount shall be paid to the district treasurer out 
of the state treasury. 

3. The secretary of state shall annually include and apportion in the state 
tax all such sums as shall have been paid. Whenever, owing to any failure or 
neglect to make the report required by law, any free high school shall fail to 
have apportioned to it, its share of the state aid, the state superintendent may, 
after the time hereinbefore fixed for such apportionment by him, fix an amount 
ten per centum less than the amount which said school would have been en- 
titled to, had it complied with the provisions of this section, and certify the 
same to the secretary of state with the report of such district annexed thereto, 
and the secretary of state shall thereupon draw his warrant for such amount or 
amounts in favor of such district. 

4. The whole amount annually paid under the provisions of this section 
shall not exceed seventy-five thousand dollars, and if more be demanded by 
such districts they shall be paid proportionally ; provided, that if the whole 
amount authorized to be paid annually in aid of free high schools as provided 
by section 491b as amended by this act, is not demanded or expended under the 
provisions of that section, then the unexpended balance of the amount therein 
annually ayithorized to be paid in aid of such schools may be added to and 
apportioned among the free high schools provided for in sections 490 and 491. 

NORIH Dakota, School Laws of 1903, Article 23. High School Board. 

Sec. 867. The governor, superintendent of public instruction, and president 
of the state university are hereby constituted a board of commissioners on pre- 
paratory schools for the encouragement of higher education in the state. Said 
board shall be called the " High School Board," and shall perform the duties 
and have and exercise the powers hereinafter mentioned. 

Sec. 868. Any public graded school in any city or incorporated village or 
township, organized into a district, under the township or district system, which 
shall give instruction according to the terms and provisions of this article and 
shall admit students of either sex from any part of the state without charge for 
tuition, shall be entitled to be classified as a state high school and to receive 
pecuniary aid as hereinafter specified ; provided, however, that no such school 
shall be required to admit non-resident pupils unless they pass an examination 
it! orthography, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, grammar, modern 
geography, and the history of the United States. 



348 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

Sec. 869. The said board shall require of the schools applying for such 
pecuniary aid or prerequisite to receiving such aid, compliance with the follow- 
ing conditions, to wit : — 

1. That there be regular and orderly courses of study, embracing all the 
branches prescribed by the said board for the first two years of the high school 
course. 

2. That the said school receiving pecuniary aid under this article shall at 
all times permit the said board of commissioners, or any of them, to visit and 
examine the classes pursuing the said preparatory courses. 

Sec. 870. (Amended.) i. The high school board shall cause each school 
receiving aid under this act to be visited at least once each year by a com- 
mittee of one or more members, who shall carefully inspect the instruction and 
discipline of the preparatory classes, and make a written report on the same 
immediately ; provided, that no money shall be paid in any case until after 
such report shall have been received and examined by the board, and the work 
of the school approved by a vote of the board. 

2. The said board shall receive applications from such schools for aid as 
hereinafter provided, which applications shall be received and acted upon in 
the order of their reception. The said board shall apportion to each of said 
schools which shall have fully complied with the provisions of this act and 
whose application shall have been approved by the board, the following sums, 
to wit : Four hundred dollars (;?40o) each year to each school maintaining 
four years' high school course and doing four years' high school work; the 
sum of three hundred dollars (^300) each year to each school having a three 
years' high school course and doing three years' high school work ; the 
sum of two hundred dollars (^200) each year to each school having a two 
years' high school course and doing two years' high school work ; proyided, 
that moneys so apportioned to any high school shall be used to increase the 
efficiency of the high school work ; provided, further, that the total amount 
of the apportionment and expenses under this act shall not exceed ten thou- 
sand dollars (^10,000) in one year. The sum of ten thousand dollars [^10,- 
000) is hereby appropriated annually for the purpose of this act, to be paid 
out of any moneys in the treasury not otherwise appropriated ; which amount, 
or so much thereof as may be necessary, shall be paid upon the itemized 
vouchers of said board, duly certified and filed with the state auditor ; pro- 
vided, however, that in case the amount appropriated and available under this 
act for the payment of aid to such schools shall in any year be insufficient to 
apportion each of such high schools as are entitled thereto the full amount in- 
tended to be apportioned to the high schools of the various classes, then in 
such case such amount as is apportioned and available shall be apportioned 
pro rata among all the schools entitled thereto. 



APPENDIX H 
SOME DAILY PROGRAMS IN ACTUAL USE 

I. Streator, 111., Township High School, daily program for the first semester,. 
1908-1909. This is a school enrolling 285 pupils and employing a principal 
and eleven teachers. The special points presented by this program are: 
breadth of curriculum, arrangement of sciences for laboratory work, provision 
for care of the library. The segregation in Latin I is also interesting. Time 
is taken after school for consultations, athletic training, etc. The Roman nu- 
merals with the subjects indicate the year in which the subject is taken. 

See Table on page 350. 

II. Schedule of Recitation of the Deerfield Township High School, High- 
land Park, 111., 1908-1909. This high school enrolls 227 pupils, with a prin- 
cipal and ten regular teachers. This shows two sessions, with a luncheon 
period of thirty minutes and a music period, twice a week, of ten minutes. 
The arrangements for manual training, gymnasium practice, and laboratory 
periods are also of interest. 

See Table on page 351. 

III. Daily program of the Hinsdale, 111., High School, first semester, 1908- 
1909. This is a suburban village school enrolling 102 pupils, with a principal 
and five other teachers and a superintendent who teaches one high school 
class. As will be seen, this is a one-session high school. Attention is called to 
the arrangement of the sciences so as to give double periods for laboratory 
work; also to the manual arts and domestic science arrangement. 

See Table on page 352. 

IV. Following is the program in use at Galva, 111., a high school which is 
part of the school system of a large town. The high school enrolls 84 pupils 
and employs a principal and three other regular teachers. The superintendent 
also teaches two classes. This program is given to show the comparative 
breadth of work undertaken and the consequent difficulties in adjusting the 
program. The period for study and consultation is also a feature. 

See Table on page 353. 



349 



350 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



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APPENDIX H 



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352 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



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APPENDIX H 



353 



Streeter 


White 


Edwards 


Avery 


Gould 


MOHI.ER 




r Music 


Current 


Spelling 










Men. 


Events 


Thur. 








9:00. 


Tu. 30 
min. 


Wed. 15 min. 


20 min. 














Latin III 


English IV 


Zoology II 


Algebra I« 


9:50 — 


U.S. Hist, and 
Civil Govt. IV 
Tues. 


Latin I 


English III 


Lab. 
M. T. W. 




10:3s — 









Physics III 


Algebra P 


II : 20- 


U.S. Hist, and 






" Lab. 


Algebra II 


12:00 


Civil Govt. IV 
M. W. Th. F. 






W. Th. F. 




i:iS 


Geometry III 




English II 


Phys.Geog.I 


1:15-2:15 
Man. Tr. IV 
M. Th. 














rMan. 














Tr. 


2:00 P 


sriod for study 


and consi 


iltation with t< 


2achers 


2-3 M. j 
2: 15-3 W. 


II 

and 

I<» 












2-3 Tu. f Man. 


2:1s 




Latin IV 


History III 


Chemistry IV 


2:15-3 JTr. 
Th. [ P 


3:00- 




History II 


English I 


Laboratory 


3-4 Man. Tr. Ill 


3:45 


' 






Chemistry 
3 days per 
week 


Tu. F. 



V. The following is the program in use at Camp Point, 111. It is a typical 
three-teacher program, of whom the superintendent is one. The school 
enrolls 60 pupils. Attention is called to the ways in which time is econo- 
mized. On days when physiography is given only a single period, the teacher 
directs the musical training of the grades. The physiography is followed the 
second semester by botany, and these two are taught alternate years, to two 
classes. The subjects alternating with these are zoology and physiology, 
each a half-year. Civics is taught with the American history. 

It will be observed that no teacher has more than six periods of teaching. 



354 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 





Simpson 


Allen 


ROATH 


9:00- 9: 10 


Exercises 






9 : lo- 9 : 50 




American Hist. Ill 


Latin II 


9:50-10:30 


Geometry IV 




Latin I 


10: 30-10:40 


Recess 




10:40-11 : 20 


Geometry III 


English IV 


. 


II : 20-12: 00 


Algebra II 


Music (in grades) 


English I 


I : 10- I : 50 


(On alternate days) Physiography II 


Latin III 


i : 50- 2 : 30 


Algebra I j Physiography II 


Latin IV 


2:30- 2:40 


Recess 




2:40- 3:20 


Physics] From 


Eng. Hist, and Hist, of 






13:00 to 


Eng. Lit. Ill 




3 : 20- 4 : 00 


Physics J 4 : 00 


Ancient Hist. I 


English II 



I, II, III, IV, indicate the year of the course. 

VI. Daily program of the Paw Paw, 111., High School. This is a typical 
small town high school in which the superintendent and one assistant carry 
all the work of a four -year high school course. In this case third- and fourth- 
year English alternate j also physics and biology. 



Hour 


Mr. a. a. Franzke 


Mr. F. J. Snapp 


Time 


9:00 


Chapel 


Exercises 


10 


9:10 


German First Year 


Economics 


40 


9:50 


German Second Year 


Economics 


45 


10:35 


Recess 


Period 


10 


10:45 


English First Year 


Physics 


40 


11:25 


Rhetoric 


Physics (Lab.) and Visiting 


40 


12:05 


Intermission 


— Noon 


70 


1:15 


Ancient History 


Algebra Second Year 


45 


2:00 


American Literature 


Algebra First Year 


45 


2:4s 


Recess 


Period 


15 


3:00 








to 


M. and M. History 


Plane-Solid Geometry 


40 


3:40 









APPENDIX H 



355 



VII. High school daily program of the John Swaney Consolidated School, 
Putnam Co., Ill, P. O. McNabb. 

This is a four-year two-teacher high school, and the program here given is 
for the first semester, 1 908-1 909. 



Hour 


Assistant Principal 


Principal 


9 -9:10 


Opening 


Exercises 




9 : 10- 9 : 50 


First -year Algebra 






Chemistry 


9:50-10:30 


Ancient History 






Chemistry 


10:30-11: 10 


Second-year Algebra 






English III 


II: 10-11:50 


English History 






English II 


11:50-12:50 


Lunc' 


leon 






12:50- 1:30 


Second-year Latin 






Drawing (W.) 


1 : 30- 2 : lo 


Plane Geometry 






English I 






fM. 
[An 


T. W-Th. fFr. 


2: 10- 2: 50 


Household Science II 


imal 


Husbandry [Man. Tr. 


2:50- 3:30 


Physiology 


fM. T. W. Th. jFr. 
[Animal Husbandry [Man. Tr. 



In the second semester second-year Algebra drops out, leaving room for 
another period of Household Science II. This is then given on M. T. W. 
and Th., and Household Science I on Fr. Physiography takes the place of 
Physiology. Drawing is dropped, and Agronomy II takes the place of Animal 
Husbandry. 

Alternation is also employed for economy of time. In the program for the 
following year would therefore appear English IV, Physics, Latin I and III, 
American History and Civics, Horticulture, Arithmetic and Bookkeeping, 
Household Science III, Zoology and Botany. 

This program is given as illustrating one way of arranging a general high 
school course for presentation to a small group of pupils in a rural district. 

This high school is well equipped with modern facilities and conveniences, 
including good laboratories and a workshop. 



356 HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

APPENDIX I — TABLE SHOWING PRINCIPAL LEGAL 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


Alabama 


City and town 


District high 


City councils ap- 


No provision. 


(Laws of 


boards may 


schools of 


propriate on 


County schools 


1908) 


establish. 


cities and 


estimates of 


make tuition 




County high 


towns. County 


boards of edu- 


unnecessary. 




schools estab- 


high schools. 


cation. 






lished by State 




In case of county 






High School 




high school 






Commission. 




site and build- 
ing donated. 
$2000 annually 
appropriated 
from treasury 
for teaching. 




Arizona 


In districts of 


District and 


By special tax 


A "reasonable" 


(Laws of 


1000 or more 


union district. 


levy estimated 


tuition fee col- 


1905) 


inh§^bitants by 




and certified 


lected from 




vote of elec- 




by county su- 


non - residents 




tors. 




perintendent. 


of high school 
districts. 


Arkansas 


Establishment 


City and town 


Out of regular 


All schools are 


(Laws of 


mandatory 


district. 


funds pro- 


free. 


1907) 


upon city and 
town boards. 




vided by taxa- 
tion and dis- 
tributable 
funds. 




California 


By vote of elec- 


City or district 


By special tax 


Board may re 


(Laws of 


tors in districts 


high schools. 


levy. 


quire amoun 


1907) 


with minimum 


Union high 


State high school 


of cost pe 




school popula- 


school dis- 


fund, i appor- 


pupil les; 




tion of 200. 


tricts. 


tioned irre- 


amount pe 






County high 


spective of at- 


pupil receivec 






schools. 


tendance; rest 
pro rata. 


from state. 


Colorado 


Boards of educa- 


District high 


District by local 


Board determine 


(Laws of 


tion author- 


schools, ist and 


tax. County 


for non-resi 


1907) 


ized to estab- 


2d class; union 


by special tax 


dents. 




lish. 


high schools ; 
county high 
schools, ist 
and 2d class. 


over county 
not to exceed 
2 mills on a 
dollar. 


■ 



APPENDIX I 
ENACTMENTS AFFECTING HIGH SCHOOLS, BY STATES 



357 



Text-books 


Conditions of 


Supervision 


Teachers' 


Other 


Admission 


AND Inspection 


Qualifications 


Provisions 


High school texts 


In districts con- 


By local district 


In districts those 




prescribed by 


trolled by local 


superintend- 


licensed by lo- 




local boards. 


boards. In 


ents and by 


cal boards; in 






county school 


county boards 


counties those 






must be gradu- 


respectively. 


holding first 






ates of ele- 




grade or life 






mentary 




certificate 






schools. 




granted by 
State Board of 










Examiners. 




Prescribed as uni- 


Certificate of 


General super- 


No special provi- 




form series by 


teacher in dis- 


vision by terri- 


sion. 




territorial Board 


trict in which 


torial board. 






of Education. 

1 


pupil resides. 


Direct super- 
vision by 
county super- 
intendent. 






Adopted by 


Determined by 


Direct by prin- 


No special quali- 




boards from 


local boards. 


cipal or super- 


fications re- 




list prepared by 




intendent of 


quired by law. 




state superin- 




district. Gen- 


Local boards 




tendent. 




eral by county 
and state su- 
perintendents. 


may examine. 




State publishes 


Only such pupils 


No special provi- 


Special high 




books to be 


as have com- 


sion. Univer- 


school certifi- 




used. Use of 


pleted courses 


sity inspects 


cate required. 




these com- 


prescribed for 


and accredits. 






pulsory. 


primary and 

grammar 

schools. 








School boards se- 


Certificate from 


No special provi- 


Special certifi- 




lect. 


county super- 


sion. 


cate covering 




By vote of dis- 


intendent of 


University in- 


high school 




trict may pro- 


graduation 


spects and 


branches is 




vide free text- 


from 8 th grade. 


accredits. 


required. 




books. 











358 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kjnds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


Connecti- 


Town may estab- 


Approved and 


Chiefly local tax. 


Towns not having 


cut 




lish. 


those of lower 


State aids in sup- 


high schoQls 


(Laws 


of 




rank. 


port of high- 


may pay tui- 


1908) 








school library 
and labora- 
tories. 


tion at non- 
local school. 


Delaware 


No special pro- 




The state treas- 




(Correct 


to 


vision. 




urer pays to 




1906) 








each graded 
school $15 for 
each year spent 
by a pupil in 
school. 




Florida 




Authorizes 








(Correct 


to 


county boards 








1906) 




to establish 
when re- 
quested by 
patrons and 
when number 
of pupils re- 
quires it. 








Georgia 




No mention of 








(Correct 


to 


high schools. 








1906) 












Idaho 




No mention of 


Maintains a state 






(Laws 


of 


high schools. 


academy. 






1907) 












Illinois 




No special pro- 


High schools as 


First as part of 


Districts not hav- 


(Laws 


of 


vision except 


parts of city 


general sys- 


ing high schools 


1907) 




for township 


systems, not 


tem. 


may pay on 






high schools. 


specially au- 


Township schools 


certain condi- 






Latter by vote 


thorized- 


by tax over 


tions. 






of electors on 


Township high 


township. 








petition. 


schools. 







APPENDIX I 



359 



Text-books 



Conditions of 

Admission 



Supervision 
AND Inspection 



Teachers' 
Qualifications 



Other 
Provisions 



Free text-books 
mandatory on 
boards. 



Uniform 
list. 



state 



May be free by 
election. 



Adopted by dis- 
trict boards. 



No special pro- 
vision. 



General by 

county super- 
intendents, al- 
though not 
specially pro- 
vided. 

Inspection for 
accrediting by 
state univer- 
sity. 



No provision 
other than for 
elementary 
schools. 



Transporta- 
tion of 
pupils at- 
tending 
approved 
non - lo- 
cal schools 
must be 
paid by 
town. 



The course 
of study 
is pre- 
scribed 
by the 
county 
board. 



36o 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


Indiana 


Trustee may es- 


Those depart- 


Township schools 


Regulated by 


(Laws of 


tablish town- 


ments of 


by tax on 


school trustees. 


1907) 


ship school for 


graded com- 


township. 






twenty-five 


mon schools, 


County schools 






qualified pu- 


known as com- 


by tax over 






pUs. 


missioned and 


county and by 






District high 


non-c m m i s- 


donations. 






schools are a 


sioned. 


City schools as 






department of 


Township high 


part of graded 






graded schools. 


schools, coun- 
ty high schools. 


system. 




Iowa 


Boards of direc- 


District and 


Local taxation. 


Fixed by board 


(Laws of 


tors have 


county high 


County schools 


of directors or 


1907) 


power to main- 


schools. 


by tax over 


county board 




tain schools of 




county not to 


of trustees. 




higher order. 




exceed 2 mills. 




Kansas 


City schools or- 


City, ist and 2d 


Local and county 


Tuition free in 


(Laws of 


ganized by 


class, and 


tax, respec- 


counties where 


1907) 


boards. 


county. 


tively. 


there is county 




County high 




State aid for in- 


high school 




schools by vote 




dustrial train- 


fund. 




of people. 




ing. 
County high 
school fund 
(Barnes law). 


Fixed by boards 
in other cases. 

Decision 1904 says 
tuition may not 
be charged by 
2d class cities. 


Kentucky 


Not specifically 




As part of com- 


Fixed by boards 


(Laws of 


mentioned in 




mon schools. 


for non-resi- 


1908) 


law. Part of 
graded com- 
mon school 
system. 






dents. 



APPENDIX I 



361 



Text-books 


Conditions 


of 


Supervision 


Teachers' 


Other 


Admission 


AND Inspection 


Qualifications 


Provisions 


State uniformity. 


Fixed by trus- 


By state Board 


Superintendent of 


Co'missioned 




tees. 




of Education. 


state rules 
that license 
must cover 
high school 
subjects taught. 


high schools 
are defined 
as includ- 
ing not less 
than 4 yr. 
following 
8 yr. of 
elementary 
school. 
Studies are 
enumer- 
ated. 


District or county 


Determined 


by 


State Board of 






uniformity op- 


boards. 




Examiners in- 






tional. 






spects schools 






Free texts also 






designed for 






optional. 






training of 
teachers. 
University in- 
spects and 
accredits. 






State uniformity 


Determined 


by 


No special pro- 


City boards ex- 


High school 


law does not 


boards of edu- 


vision. 


amine and cer- 


fraternities 


include high 


cation. 




University in- 


tify. 


disbarred. 


school texts. 






spects and 
accredits. 




■ 




Part of 


the 


That of the com- 


No special provi- 






graded system. 


mon schools. 


sions. 





362 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


Louisiana 


May be estab- 


City or parish 


Poll tax in par- 


No provision. 


(Correct to 


lished when 


schools. 


ishes and state 




1906) 


necessary by 
parish board, 
subject to ap- 
proval by 
state Board of 
Education. 




funds distrib- 
uted on basis 
of school popu- 
lation. 
School site and 
buildings must 
be provided by 
parish. 




Maine 


Towns may es- 


Free high schools. 


By local tax and 


School trustees 


(Laws of 


tablish not to 




by state aid in 


may pay to any 


1907) 


exceed two 




a sum amount- 


academy or to 




high schools. 




ing to one half 


any adjoining 




Two or more ad- 




of sum actually 


town having a 




joining towns 




expended for 


free high school. 




may unite to 




instruction. 






establish. 




Maximum aid 

$250. 




Maryland 


Provided for by 


District and 


Out of general 


No mention. 


(Correct to 


county com- 


county. 


school fund. 




1906) 


missioner. 
When a district 
or districts pre- 
sent a building. 








Massachu- 


Compulsory in 


City or town, and 


Local taxation 


Paid by district 


setts 


cities and 


union high 


and distribu- 


from which pu- 


(Laws of 


towns of 500 or 


schools. Man- 


tion of income 


pil goes. Re- 


1907) 


more families 


ual training 


of state fund 


imbursed in 




or household- 


and industrial 


based on prop- 


some cases. 




ers. May be 


schools. Even- 


erty valuation 






established in 


ing high 


with some ex- 






others. 


schools. 


ceptions. 
State aid to ap- 
proved schools. 




Michigan 


By board of trus- 


Graded district 


Out of general 


District board 


(Correct to 


tees when or- 


and rural. 


local and state 


may admit non- 


1906) 


dered by vote 
of graded 
school district. 
By vote of elec- 
tors in rural 
townships. 




funds. 


residents on 
tuition. 



APPENDIX I 



3^3 



Text-books 



Uniform list se- 
lected by state 
Board of Edu- 
cation. 



Free text-books 
made manda- 
tory upon all 
towns. 



Free text-books, 
subject to limi- 
tation as to 
funds for same. 

Mandatory. 



Free to pupils. 
Adopted by 
school com- 
mittee. 

Mandatory. 



Selected by local 
boards and ap- 
proved by 
state board. 



Conditions of 
Admission 



Determined by 
school com- 
mittee. 



Pupils must pre- 
sent certificate 
of vaccination. 

According to 
qualifications. 



Determined by 
school com- 
mittee. 



Determined by 
local boards. 



Supervision 
AND Inspection 



General, by state 
Board of Edu- 
cation. 



By school com- 
mittee. 



By county school 
commissioner 
and by some 
one designated 
by state Board 
of Education. 

Superintendent, 
principal, and 
in part by 
state Board of 
Education. 



No special provi- 
sion. 

Inspected and 
accredited by 
the university. 



Teachers' 
Qualifications 



No special pro- 
visions. 



No special provi- 
sion. 



No special certi- 
fication re- 
quired. 



Other 
Provisions 



General out- 
line of 
course of 
study. 



Medical in- 
spection. 

Transpor- 
tation pro- 
vided for. 



3^4 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


Minnesota 
(Laws of 
1907) 


Established by 
school boards. 


District 
school. 


high 


Local taxation, 
state aid. 


Tuition is free 
to residents of 
state who are 
qualified. 


Mississippi 
(Laws of 
1906) 


Board of trustees 
may establish 
in separate 
school districts. 


Graded 

schools. 
County 

schools. 


high 
high 


Out of the funds 
estabUshed by 
taxation, and 
the distributa- 
ble funds. 


May be fixed by 
school trustees, 
or schools may 
be made free. J 


Missouri 
(Laws of 
1907) 


Boards of direc- 
tors may es- 
tablish in cities 
or towns. 

Central or union 
high schools 
by vote of dis- 
tricts. 


City or town, and 
central or 
union. 


Out of general 
local and state 
funds. 


Fixed by boards. 


Montana 
(Correct to 
1907) 


School trustees 
determine 
branches to be 
taught in pub- 
lic schools. 

County high 
schools by vote 
on petition. 


Graded schools. 
County high 
schools. 


Out of regular 
pubUc school 
funds. 

County high 
schools by tax 
on county. 


Schools are free. 


Nebraska 

(Laws of 

1907) 


District trustees 
may establish 
by order of dis- 
trict. 


District 
county. 


and 


By district levy 
and distribu- 
table fund, or 
by county tax, 
in care of 
county high 
schools. 


Made free by a 
special free high 
school law. 


Nevada 
(Laws of 
1907) 


Established in 
districts by 
school trustees. 

County high 
schools by vote 
of county. 


Graded 

schools. 
County 

schools. 


high 
high 


By taxation and 
distributable 
funds in dis- 
tricts. 

By county tax in 
care of county 
high schools. 


Tuition free. 





APPENDIX I 




36s 


Text-books 


Conditions of 


Supervision 


Teachers' 


Other 


Admission 


AND Inspection 


Qualifications 


Provisions 


Free texts may 


Determined by 


By state High 


Not specified in 


High schools 


be provided — 


definition of 


School Board 


law. 


defined. 


subject to vote 


school. 


through in- 






of district. 




spector ap- 
pointed by 
that body. 






High school texts 


Determined by 


By trustees and 


Not specified. 




not included in 


school trustees. 


county super- 






uniform list, 




intendent. 






provided by 










law for the 










state. 










High schools affil- 


Determined by 


By state super- 


Those of central 




iated with uni- 


boards in cities 


intendent for 


high schools 




versity may 


and towns. 


purpose of 


must hold 




select, through 


Fixed by law for 


classifying. 


first - grade 




their boards. 


central or 


Also inspected 


county certifi- 






union schools. 


and accred- 
ited by uni- 
versity. 


cate or a state 
certificate. 




Uniform series 


By gradation. 


By district and 


County or state 




adopted for 


In county schools 


county super- 


certification. 




state. 


by rules of 


intendents and 






Books may be 


board. 


boards. 






free at option 










of electors. 










Purchased by 


Determined by 


By district. 


Graduate of uni- 


High school 


districts and 


trustees or 


county, and 


versity or nor- 


course pro- 


loaned free. 


boards of edu- 


state super- 


mal school or 


vided for. 


Mandatory. 


cation. 


intendents. 


holder of pro- 


High school 






Inspected for 


fessional state 


defined. 






accrediting by 


certificate. 








university. 






Adopted by 


By gradation in 


By district su- 


High school cer- 




boards. 


districts. By 
county board 
and principal 
in county 
school. 


perintendents 
and principals. 


tificate. 





366 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


New 


By vote of any 


Partially or fully 


By local tax and 


Paid by state. 


Hampshire 


district. 


approved. 


by tuition for 




(Correct to 






non-residents 




1907) 






paid by state. 




New 


By local boards 


District and 


Local tax. 


Fixed by boards. 


Jersey 


as part of 


union district. 




May be paid by 


(Laws of 


graded system. 






district of non- 


(1905) 








resident when 
so ordered by 
vote of people. 


New 


Established by 


Graded. 


As part of public 


Determined by 


Mexico 


city boards at 




school system. 


local boards. 


(Laws of 


their own dis- 








1907) 


cretion. 








New York 


Academic depart- 


High schools 


Local tax and 


State pays tuition 


(Correct to 


ments estab- 


known as aca- 


state aid. 


of non-resident 


1907) 


lished at dis- 
cretion of 
boards of edu- 
cation. 


demic depart- 
ments of pub- 
lic schools. 




pupils. 


North 


High school sub- 


As part of com- 


T-oral tax and 




Carolina 


jects may be 


mon schools. 


distributable 




(Laws of 


taught in 


Township high 


fund. 




1907) 


schools of more 
than one 
teacher. Not 
to interfere 
with thorough 
elementary 
work. 
Township 
schools may 
be established. 


schools. 






North 


Established by 


Two, three, 


Local tax and 


Free. 


Dakota 


boards of edu- 


and four-year 


state aid. 




(Laws of 


cation. 


schools. 






1907) 











1 



APPENDIX I 



367 



Text-books 


Conditions of 
Admission 


Supervision 
AND Inspection 


Teachers' 
Qualifications 


Other 
Provisions 


Free text-books, 
mandatory. 


Determined by 
boards. 


Schools are ap- 
proved by su- 
perintendent 
of public in- 
struction. 


Certification by 
local boards. 


High school 
defined. 


Free text-books, 
mandatory. 


Determined by 
local boards. 


Inspected by 
state inspector 
under state 
Board of Edu- 
cation. 


Not specified. 


Defined as 
a school 
having 
the "third 
four years 
of the 
course." 


Adopted by ter- 
ritorial Board 
of Education. 


By gradation. 


No special pro- 
vision. 


No special pro- 
visions. 




Adopted and 
designated by 
local boards. 

May be made free. 


Fixed by the 
Regents of the 
University of 
New York of 
which aca- 
demic depart- 
ments are 
apart. 


By the state 
Commissioner 
of Education. 


Must have mini- 
mum of pro- 
fessional train- 
ing. 


State aid to 
provide for 
teachers' 
training 
classes. 


Free or sold at 
cost, at discre- 
tion of boards. 


Determined by 
boards, and 
under rules of 
state board. 


By state high 
school board, 
or by inspector 
appointed by 
that body. 


Not specified in 
law. 





368 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


Ohio 


Board of educa- 


District, town- 


District high 


Determined by 


(Correct to 


tion may estab- 


ship, union, or 


schools from 


boards. 


1906) 


lish when 


special district 


local tax and 






deemed proper 


high schools. 


state school 






or necessary. 


Classified into 
ISt, 2d, and 3d 
grades. 


funds. Town- 
ship or union 
by special tax 
in addition to 
tuition fund. 




Oklahoma 


Boards of educa- 


City high schools. 


By local tax and 


May be charged 


(Laws of 


tion of cities of 


County high 


distributable 


to non-resi- 


1908) 


the first rla.ss 


schools. 


funds in cities. 


dents by 




may establish. 




By county tax 


boards. 




On petition of | 




in case of 






of electors, 




county schools. 






counties may 










vote for estab- 










lishment of 










county school. 








Oregon 


Established in 


District, county, 


By local tax 


Fixed by boards 


(Laws of 


districts on 


and union dis- 


and distribu- 


in districts. 


1907) 


vote of electors. 


trict high 


table funds. 


County high 




Established in 


schools. 




schools free to 




counties where 






those in county. 




a majority 










favor a county 










school. 










By union of dis- 










tricts. 








Pennsyl- 


Boards of educa- 


District and joint 


District tax and 


Paid by districts, 


vania 


tion may estab- 


high schools. 


state aid. 


except that 


(Laws of 


lish. 


Also schools 




amount of 


1907) 


Directors of two 


of ISt, 2d, 




state aid is 




or more town- 


and 3d 




deducted. 




ships or school 


grades. 








districts may 










establish joint 










high schools. 








Rhode 


Established by 


Town or district 


Local tax and 


Paid by state. 


Island 


cities and 


high schools. 


state aid to 




(Correct to 


towns. 




the amount of 




1906) 






$20 per pupil. 





APPENDIX I 



369 



Text-books 


Conditions 


of 


Supervision 


Teachers' 


Other 


Admission 


AND Inspection 


Qualifications 


Provisions 


Adopted by 


Determined 


by 


By state com- 


Teacher's high 




boards from 


definition. 




missioner for 


school certifi- 




lists and prices 






classification. 


cate required. 




on file in state 






Inspected for 






commissioner's 






accrediting by 






office. 






university. 






Uniform series 


Determined 


by 


By city superin- 


A general state 


County high 


adopted by 


boards. 




tendents and 


certificate or a 


schools pro- 


Text-book 






by principals 


state high 


vide nor- 


Commission. 






of county 


school certifi- 


mal courses, 








schools. 


cate is re- 
quired. 


graduation 
from which 
entitles to 
teach. 


Selected by state 


Must pass 1 


iini- 


By city and 


Graduates of 


Two years 


Text-book 


form 8 th grade 


county super- 


normal school. 


of course 


Commission. 


examination. 


intendents and 


collegiate in- 


prescribed 








by principals 


stitution, or 


by state su- 








of county 


hold state 


perintend- 








schools. 


certificate or 
diploma. 


ent. Other 
two years 
optional, 
by county 
or district 
boards. 


Free text-books, 


By examination. 


By the superin- 


Must be certifi- 




mandatory. 






tendent of 


cated for 




Districts paying 






city, borough, 


branches to 




tuition also pay 






or county in 


be taught. 




cost of texts 






which located. 






used by non- 












residents. 














Determined 


by 


By the town su- 


Determined by 


Transporta- 




local school 


perintendent. 


state Board of 


tion of pu- 




committees 


• 




Education. 


pils may be 
provided. 



370 



HIGH SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 



State 


Condition for 
Establishing 


Kinds of High. 
Schools 


Maintenance 


Tuition 


South 


May be estab- 


Four-year, three- 


Local tax and 




Carolina 


lished by elec- 


year, and two- 


state aid. 




(Laws of 


tion by any 


year high 






1907) 


county, town- 
ship, aggrega- 
tion of town- 
ships, union of 
districts, or in- 
corporated 
town or city. 


schools. 






South 


In districts may 


District and 


Local tax and 


Shall be paid by 


Dakota 


be established 


township. 


distributable 


home district. 


(Correct to 


at discretion of 




fund. 




1907) 


boards. 
Township high 
schools on pe- 
tition and 
election. 








Tennessee 


Local boards of 


County high 


By local and 




(Correct to 


municipalities 


schools and 


county tax re- 




1907) 


may establish. 
County high 
schools by 
county court 
on discretion. 


high schools 
of municipal 
corporations. 


spectively. 




Texas 


Not specifically 








(Laws of 


mentioned in 








1907) 


law. Schools 
may teach such 
branches as 
trustees may 
agree upon or 
state superin- 
tendent direct. 








Utah 


In districts of 


District and 


Local tax and 


Schools are free 


(Laws of 


1000 or more 


union district 


distributable 


except in cer- 


1907) 


population 
trustees may 
establish on 
vote of prop- 
erty tax-payers. 
Union high school 
districts estab- 
lished on vote. 


high schools. 


funds. 


tain cases where 
funds are not 
sufficient. 



APPENDIX I 



371 



Text-books 



Conditions of 
Admission 



Supervision 
AND Inspection 



Teachers' 
Qualifications 



Other 
Provisions 



Series prescribed 
by state Boaxd 
of Education. 



County uniform- 
ity — adoptions 
by county 

boards of edu- 
cation. 

May be made free. 



Uniform state 
adoption by 
state Board of 
Education. 



Not free in case 
of high schools. 

Selected by local 
boards. 



Pupils must have 
completed state 
common school 
course or its 
equivalent. 



Must be gradu- 
ates of 8 th 
grade or eqxiiv- 
alent. 



On diplomas from 
"secondary" 
schools. 



Regular grada- 
tion. Must be 
eighteen years 
old. 



State high school 
board and 
high school 
inspector. 



By state super- 
intendent and 
local superin- 
tendents. 

Inspected by 
state superin- 
tendent. 



Local authorities. 

County high 

schools by 
county super- 
intendent. 



Local and county 
supervision. 



Must hold first- 
grade certifi- 
cates. (Rule 
of state 

board.) 



State certificate 
or life diploma 
required. 



No specification 
except that 
county super- 
intendent 
makes rules in 
case of county 
high schools. 



No special provi- 
sion in case of 
high schools. 



Grades six to 
eight in- 
clusively 
are desig- 
nated sec- 
ondary 
schools. 



372 



HIGH SCHOOI. ADMINISTRATION 



State 



Vermont 
(Laws of 
1907) 



Virginia 
(Laws of 
1907) 



Washing- 
ton 

(Laws of 
1907) 



West 

Virginia 
(Laws of 

1908) 



Wisconsin 
(Laws of 
1907) 



Wyoming 
(Correct to 
1906) 



Condition for 

Establishing 



Towns must 
maintain or 
provide higher 
instruction to 
qualified pupils. 

Any county or 
district board 
may establish, 
subject to rules 
of state Board 
of Education. 



Made a part 
of common 
schools. 



District high 

schools by vote 
at option of 
board. 



Any town, vil- 
lage, or city 
having at least 
25 persons pre- 
pared for work 
may establish. 



Kinds of High 
Schools 



Provides for free 
high school 
districts. 



High schools and 
academies, ist, 
2d, 3d, and 4th 
class. 



District and 

county. 



Maintenance 



District and 

union high 
schools. 



District high 

schools. 
Joint high 

schools. 



Free high schools, 
joint district 
high schools, 
county schools 
of agricultural 
and domestic 
economy. 



Local tax 
state aid. 



and 



Local tax or tui- 
tion fee, and 
state aid. 



Tuition 



Made mandatory. 
Local tax and 
distributable 
funds. 

Bonus by state 
to union dis- 
tricts. 

Local taxation 
and distribu- 
table funds. 



Local tax and 
state aid to cer- 
tified schools 
equal to one 
half of actual 
expenditure by 
district. Total 
aid limited to 
$25,000 for 
the state. 



Local tax and 
distributable 
funds. 



Paid by towns 
not having high 
schools of first 
class. 



May be charged 
to all pupils. 

Schools receiving 
state aid open 
on equal terms 
to all. 



Free. 



As fixed by 
boards of edu- 



Tuition collected 
from home dis- 
tricts of pupils. 



APPENDIX I 



373 



Text-books 


Conditions of 
Admission 


Supervision 

AND Inspection 


Teachers' 
Qualifications 


Other 
Provisions 


Free text-books. 


By gradation in 


Superintendent of 


No special pro- 


High schools 




their own 


education and 


vision. 


are defined. 




towns. By ex- 


town superin- 








amination for 


tendents. 








non-residents. 








Selected by state 


Prescribed by 


By division and 


Examined on 


Consolida- 


Board of Edu- 


state Board of 


county super- 


branches to be 


tion and 


cation. 


Education. 


intendents, and 


taught. 


transpor- 






by state board. 


Graduates of 
colleges and 
universities of 
approved 
standing are 
exempt. 


tation pro- 
vided for. 


Selected by a 


By gradation. 


By state board 


No special pro- 




school book 




of higher edu- 


vision. 




commission for 




cation, through 






districts of the 




the inspector 






j&rst class. 




for the state. 






May be made free. 










Uniform by coun- 


By gradation. 


By Board of Ed- 


High school 


High school 


ties. May be 




ucation and 


teacher's cer- 


is defined. 


made free. 




local superin- 


tificate re- 


State 






tendent. 


quired. 


board pro- 
vides 

course of 
study. 


May be made free. 


Completion of 


By state super- 


Principal must be 


Legalized 




state course 


intendent 


graduate of 


manual 




for elementary 


through regu- 


some univer- 


training 




schools. 


lar inspector. 


sity, college, or 


schools 






University also 


normal school. 


with state 






inspects for 


or hold a 


aid. 






accrediting. 


state certificate 
or pass exam- 
ination in 
studies taught. 


Twelve 
weeks' in- 
struction 
in peda- 
gogy in free 
schools. 


Must be made free. 











INDEX 



Academy, 9, 10, 13, 14, 31, 59; Qin- 
ton, 20; Phillips, 14; Phillips Exe- 
ter, 14. 

Accrediting system, 248-251. 

Adams, John, 12. 

Adjustable seats, 61, 74. 

Adolescence, 136, 138, 156-159, 189, 
202, 285. 

Adolescent period, 5. 

Adoption of text-books, 8^, 86, 87. 

^Esthetic training, 72; in method, 
215-218; judgment, 123. 

Agencies, teachers', 109. 

Agriculture, 38, loo, 136, 138-139, 141, 
143, 239-240, 245, 269, 276, 296. 

Anglo-Saxon superiority, ii. 

Apperception, 211-212. 

Appropriate standards of living, 103- 
105. 

Aquarium, 74. 

Aristotle, 3-5, 174-175. 

Armstrong, Principal J. E,, 167-168. 

Arnold of Rugby, 195. 

Assembly hall, 68-69, 73, 75. 

Athletic sports, 62; grounds, 67, 198. 

Baccalaureate, 8. 

Bacon, 5, 175. 

Berea College case, 166. 

Bible in school, 286-288. 

Bicycle run, 70. 

Boys' Trades High School, 144. 

Brodhead's history, 12. 

Broome, 238. 

Buchanan, John T., 200. 

Building materials, 66. 

Burnham, Dr. Wm. H., 63, 65-66, 161. 



Business training, 142, 146; corre- 
spondence, 257. 

Cadet teachers, 96. 

Card system of records, 261. 

Certificates, 32, 99. 

Certification, 97. 

Charters, special, 37. 

Chicago case, 45. 

Qassification, 32, 39-40, 59. 

Qay, Felix, 68. 

Clay, Principal, of Boston, 200. 

Cleanliness, 64. 

Cloak rooms, 69. 

Clock, program, 70. 

Closets, 67. 

Club membership, loi. 

Coeducation, 156, 165-169, 194, 271. 

Coeducational, 26. 

College Entrance Examination Board, 

247. 
Comenius, 5, 14. 
Commission, text-book, 82, 85. 
Committee of Ten, 52, 56, 128. 
Common school, 37, 46, 78. 
Communal college, 7, 8, 49. 
Community life, 265-278, 282, 309. 
Compayre, 300, 301. 
Compensation of teachers, 102, 103. 
Competitive element in examinations, 

226. 
Compulsory attendance, 80. 
Continuation schools, 58, 290-296. 
Contract, 40. 

Conventions of the school, 177. 
Correlation, 207-209. 
Correspondence schools, 291, 294. 



375 



376 



INDEX 



Corridors, 67, 69, 73. 

County high school, 30, 36,425 fund, 35. 

Crampton, C. W., 162. 

Daily program, 253. 

Daily routine, 253. 

Decorations, 73. 

Deductive method, 209-210; reason- 
ing, 135- 

Definitions of high school, 30. 

Defoe, 13. 

Degrees, college, 239-242. 

Democratic atmosphere, 182. 

Demolins, 9, 10. 

Departmental, 92-93, 11 2-1 13, 293- 
294. 

Departments, 69, 73. 

Descartes, 5. 

Dewey, 1 60-1 61, 204. 

DeWitt Clinton High School, 21. 

Discipline, 7, 8, 25, 1 71-185, 286; 
corrective, 171, 173, 1 79-181; for- 
mal, 176; of instruction, 173-179. 

Domestic arts, 38, 76, 136, 138-139, 
269; science, 141, 143, 240, 245. 

Domination, religious, 7; ecclesias- 
tical, 8. 

Drinking fountain, 65. 

Dutch, II, 12. 

Earle, 131. 
Ecclesiastical, 6, 8. 
Educational " inspiration," lOO. 
Elective system, 93, 147-150, 292. 
Electives, methods of adjusting, 147. 
Elementary schools, 51, 53, 55-56, 58, 

90, 103, 117, 156,293-294. 
Emergency rooms, 67. 
Emperor WilHam II., 299. 
Engineer, 68. 

Engineering, 100, 239, 244. 
Englewood experiment, 167, 169. 
English High School, 16. 
Entrance requirements, college, 237- 

240, 242-244. 



Erasmus Hall, 20. 

Ethical judgment, 123,286; in method, 

215-218; training, 281-282, 285- 

286, 308. 
Examinations, 219-235, 271, 299. 
Exclusiveness, 183. 
Exit doors, 64. 
Experience of teachers, 96. 
Expression, 54-55, 120-121, 130, 133. 

Factory-ribbed glass, 70. 

Fatigue of teacher, 96. 

Fichte 6. 

Field secretaries, 277. 

Financial ability, 190; support, 40. 

Findlay, Principal, 195-196. 

Fire, 61; escape, 67. 

Forbush, 193. 

Foribildung Schule, 294. 

Franklin, 13. 

Fraternities, 45-46, 1 81, 183, 196. 

Fraternity movement, 183. 

Free cities, 2, 6. 

Free text-books, 80, 81, 2)^, 86. 

Fry, Edward, 210. 

Games, 10. 

General Court of Massachusetts, 28. 

Girls' High School, 17. -- 

Grade principals, 93. 

Graduation, 234-235, 292. 

Grammar schools, 15, 16, 29, 51. 

Griggs, Edward H., 287. 

Guyau, 9. 

Gymnasium, 4, 5, 19, 23, 49, 51, 299. 

Gymnasium, 64, 67, 69, 145. 

Hadley, President, 241. 
Hall, G. Stanley, 157, 158, 288. 
Hanna, J. Calvin, 197. 
Harris, Dr. Wm. T., 23, 239. 
Heuristic method, 94, 215. 
High School Board, state, ■^%, 91; ex- 
tension, 290-296; of commerce, 21. 
Historical perspective, 123. 
Holophane globes, 70. 



INDEX 



377 



Home conditions, 270. 
Hughes, R. E,, 10. 
Humanities, 6, 1 18. 
Humboldt, 6, 7, 287. 
Humidity, 67, 71. 

Ideals, 191, 270, 298; American, 308; 

educational, 265-266. 
Impressional, 1 21-122, 126. 
Inductive method, 185, 215, 209-210 ; 

system, 5. 
Inspection of high schools, 248-251. 
Interest, doctrine of, 176, 206. 
Interscholastic contests, 183. 
Isolation, 120, 136, 207-208, 211-212. 

Jeiferson's scheme of education, 22. 

Jesuit, 8. 

Joint district high school, 32. 

Kalamazoo case, 37. 
Kindergarten, 51. 

Laboratories, 68, 74-75. 

Laboratory method, 25. 

Latin school, 4, 10, 15, 30. 

Lavatories, 67, 69. 

Leibnitz, 5. 

Libraries, 41, 68. 

Life of the school, 181-185, 187-200. 

Lighting, 61, 67-69, 73. 

Lockers, 64-65, 67, 69, 75. 

Lunch rooms, 64, 67, 256. 

Luther, 4, 9. 

Luxfer prisms, 70. 

Lycee, 7, 8, 23, 49-51, 301. 

Mddckenschulen, 49. 

Maintenance of high schools, 38. 

Major subject, 91, 92. 

Manual arts, 94, 138-139, 150, 173, 

240, 254, 269. 
Manual training, 31, 38, 76, 136, 139- 

140, 143, 151, 163, 303; high schools, 

23. 



Maximum salary, 105-106. 
Mechanic arts school, 17. 
Medical examination, 184, 305. 
Melanchthon, 4, 5. 
Method, 78, 202-218, 
Middle Ages, 2. 
Military drill, 144. 
Milton, 9, 22. 
Minimum wage, 104. 
Minor subject, 91. 
Mohammedan, 3. 
Monastic schools, 2. 
Moral training, 280-288. 
Moravian, 14. 
Morris high school, 21. 
Mosely commission, 302. 
Motives behind educational move- 
ments, 306-307. 

National aid, 43-44, 47. 

National Education Association, 52, 

102-103, 287, 305. 
Napoleonic wars, 6. 
New England board, 247. 
Night schools, 291, 294-295. 
Nomination of teachers, 108. 
Normal school, 43, 58, 78, 96, 98, 100, 
North Central Association of Colleges 

and Secondary Schools, 94. 

Old World influence, 24. 
Organizations of the school, 193. 
Ornamentation, 72. 
O'Shea, M. V., 203. 

Pabulum, educational, 4. 

Palaestra, 2. 

Patriotism, 123. 

Pedagogical crisis, 156; excursionists, 

loi; thought, 223. 
Penn, William, ii, 13. 
Pensions, 107. 
Physical director, 67; training, 2, 69, 

144, 184. 
Pianola, 138. 



378 



INDEX 



Pilgrims, ii. 

Plato, 174. 

Prescriptions, 98. 

Principal, high school, 110-II2, 1 14. 

Professional spirit, 98. 

Program of studies, 8-10, 23-25, 38- 

39> 52, 57» 1 1 6-1 54, 241, 292. 
Promotions, 219, 231-234. 
Psychological classification of subjects, 

118-119. 
Pubescence, 1 16, 160, 205. 

Quakers, ii. 

Qualitative, 228, 232. 

Quantitative in examinations, 221, 

228, 232, 263. 
Questions, examination, 229-230. 

Race sympathy, 134. 

Ratio of pupils to teachers, 94-96. 

Ray's Higher Arithmetic, 163. 

Reaction, 120. 

Reading habits, 272. 

Realgymnasien, 299. 

Reahchule, 6, 16, 19, 23, 49, 238, 299. 

Rebates, 41. 

Reckoning schools, 2, 3, 6. 

Reformation, 4, 9, 283. 

Regents, New York, 19, 33. 

Rein, 196. 

Religious training, 280-288. 

Renaissance, 4, 245. 

Ribot, 9. 

Rote work, 174, 176. 

Russo-Japanese war, 66. 

Sachs, Julius, 168. 
Safety, provisions for, 61, 67. 
Salary promotions, 104. 
Sanitaries, 61, 64, 71. 
Sanitation, 61, 66, 67, 70. 
School garden, 62-63; records, 257- 
261 ; reports, 262-264; site, 62-63, 

71- 
Scientific method, 5, 175, 209-211. 



Seattle case, 45. 

Secondary education, i, 3, 9, 17, 29, 
38, 58, 113, 150, 301, 307; schools, 
5-7, 9-1 1, 15, 19, 21-24, 32, 50, 57, 
97, 116, 161, 183, 300-302, 304. 

Secularized, 5, 8, 283. 

Segregation, of schools, 58; of pupils, 
166-169. 

Self-government, 198-200. 

Semiannual scheme, 231-234. 

Sequence, 123-124, 128, 136. 

Sex factor of teachers, 106. 

Sex of pupils, 150. 

Shower bath, 64. 

Single session, 256. 

Social adjustment, 149- 150; caste, 50, 
58; freedom, 146; life of teacher, 

lOI. 

Socrates, 174. 

Specialization, of the college, II2; 

of teachers, 93. 
Spontaneous play, 145. 
Stadium, 223. 
Stairways, 67. 

State aid, 38, 41, 43, 47, 82. 
Stenography, 142. 
Stereopticon, 75. 
Stimulation, 54, 120. 
Studios, 68, 74. 
Study rooms, 68, 69. 
Stuyvesant manual training high 

school, 21. 
Supervisor of high schools, 91. 
Supply and demand of teachers, 106. 
Swimming pools, 67, 145. 

Taxation, 104, 

Tenure, 102-103. 

Terminal bud, 209. 

Testimonials, 108. 

Tews, Professor, 306. 

Text-books, 44-45, 65, 77-87. 

Thompson, Principal, of Boston, 277, 

Thorndike, 160, 237. 

Tool kit, 74. 



INDEX 



379 



Township high school, 32, 34-35, 82. 

"Tractate," 9. 

Trade schools, 19, 51, 58, 143-144, 

301. 
Training, professional, 7, 58, 59, 97- 

100, 130, 178; secondary, 13, 17, 

143; technical, 99, 137. 
Tuition, 3^-33^ 37. 42. 
Typewriting, 142. 

Ultimate purpose, 106. 

Undergraduate, 131. 

Uniformity of text-books, 82-83, 85. 

Union districts, 42. 

Universities, 3-6, 50, 78, 98-99, 113, 

183, 241-251, 262, 274, 290. 
University extension, 292. 



Van Hise, President, 168. 
Ventilation, 61, 63-64, 67, 71. 
Verrill, C. H., 102-103. 
Vocabulary, 130. 
Volkschulen, 49, 51. 
" Voluntary " schools, 10, 50. 
Vorschulen, 49. 

Wadleigh High School, 21. 

Welton, 203, 213-214. 

West India Company, 29. 

William Penn Charter School, 29. 

Window surface, 64. 

Wolf, 6. 

Woodhouse, John, 10. 

Workshops, 68. 

World's Fair at St. Louis, 217. 



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